1939: Military Science

Advancement of Military Science in 1939 is due to improvements of instruments used in warfare and the consequent reorganization and improved use of instruments.

Propaganda.

Propaganda has been used more than ever before, its object being: to decrease confidence of the enemy in their leaders or their cause; to drive a wedge between allies by false or misleading reports; to bolster up the morale of their own country or troops while lowering that of the enemy. Radio broadcasting is used for such purposes; loudspeakers have been employed in the front lines; millions of pamphlets have been dropped from airplanes or balloons. The breaking of the morale of a country or its troops would do more to end the war than the winning of many battles. The Germans have decreed the death penalty for persons attempting to undermine the morale of soldiers.

Photography.

Photography from the air during the first three weeks of hostilities has given a perfect picture of concentrations and fortifications. From these photographs thousands of pictures are pieced together to provide exact maps of the German Westwall which are used in 'preparatory' shelling by artillery. The Germans also have been photographing the Maginot Line, British harbors, etc. Long range cameras have been used to photograph gun emplacements, tank traps, and innovations in camouflage. Experts believe the German air force mapped the entrance of Scapa Flow with aerial cameras to show the position of mines below the surface, enabling a submarine to penetrate the defenses and torpedo the Royal Oak. For some days before the Royal Oak was sunk, German reconnaissance planes were seen over the harbor. At Wright Field they have devised methods of taking color pictures from the air at night, using a new flash powder giving greater detail in natural color from high altitudes. These color films are so sensitive they readily pick up attempts at ground camouflage. See PHOTOGRAPHY.

Camouflage Improvement.

Camouflage technique has greatly advanced since the World War of 1914-18. The strong points, artillery positions, air fields, headquarters, etc., are so well camouflaged one cannot recognize them even when among them. Oblique photographs help divulge camouflage when vertical photos do not show it. Everything is camouflaged to the utmost — one hay stack is a signal station, another a radio station, the third a real hay stack.

Permanent Fortifications.

Permanent fortifications are being used in the present war more than ever before in the world's history. France worked twelve years on the Maginot Line and is still improving and extending it. Germany for the last two years has had 200,000 workmen on the corresponding Westwall or Siegfried Line, extending from the Swiss border to Luxemburg. The Maginot Line is probably the strongest system of fortifications in the world. The German Westwall is a close second. The greatest system of forts covers the area from the Moselle to the Rhine. It is made of steel and concrete at a cost of about $2,000,000 per mile. The strength of the Maginot Line depends primarily on the system of powerful fortress towns and fortified areas, linked, in many places, by heavy underground forts, communicating galleries, pill boxes and artillery emplacements. Many of the strong points, particularly in the area from the Moselle to the Rhine are many miles behind the frontier. The Maginot Line is really a zone from 10 to 50 miles deep. In addition to the main strong points, there are miles of pill boxes and forts, some with casemates, living quarters and magazines hundreds of feet underground. The main fortifications are sited on terrain features commanding extended terrain. The gaps between the main forts are plugged by pill boxes, blockhouses and other steel and concrete structures capable of laying down an interlocking band of fire. Outpost positions are protected by tank traps, land mines, barbed wire and iron and concrete tank obstacles. The main line of resistance, depending on machine gun and automatic weapon fire for its effectiveness, is in rear of the outpost lines of pill boxes and consists of stronger forts, many interconnected. Still further to the rear are huge casemates for artillery. Behind the whole system are fortified towns like Verdun, Metz, Toul, Nancy, which are to plug any holes the enemy might force in the forward fortifications. Underground hangars, depots, garages, are in close support.

The German Siegfried Line was fortified later than the Maginot Line, but was more hastily made. The defenses go back as far as 35 miles from the frontier. They consist of a maze of criss-crossed concrete and steel obstructions, pill boxes, and bunkers camouflaged into the landscape. It is a system of 4 lines of defense. The first two are for artillery and infantry; the third and fourth for anti-aircraft defenses. The first line is so thickly studded with concrete blocks and bunkers that in an area 1½ miles long and ½ mile deep 70 pill boxes are found, each connected with the others. Most pill boxes are so camouflaged that aviators have difficulty in finding them. Some of the bunkers have concrete walls 6 to 12 feet thick with steel plates up to 6 inches in thickness. Colonel Biermann, of Reich's Engineers, estimated these heavy works could withstand the fire of 12-inch guns. During the Polish invasion a similar bunker was fired on by a German 10-inch gun at 3,000 yards range without penetration.

Tanks.

There are three kinds of tanks; light (3-10 tons), medium (10-30 tons); and heavy (30 tons up). Improvement in tanks and their use has in many situations such as the recent invasion of Poland, greatly changed methods of battle. A typical light tank has ¼ to ½ inch armor; a turret, for observation and all-round fire; a .50 cal. and two .30 cal. machine guns; top speed 45 miles per hour; motored with 250 h.p. aircraft engine. Light tanks are used for scouting and accompanying the infantry. Medium tanks, more heavily armored, armed with 37mm. gun and machine guns, are used against pill boxes and machine gun nests in advance of the infantry or in masses for turning movements. The heavy tanks (the French have some up to 80 tons) have about 2½ inches of armor, guns up to 75mm., carry many machine guns and about 15 men. They are used against heavy fortifications, pill boxes, and semipermanent works: — to put out artillery, anti-tank guns, etc. When tank meets tank, the one with the heaviest armor and biggest gun wins. Tanks must be used in masses to be effective. Infantry must move directly behind the tanks to occupy and hold ground. The remarkably rapid conquest of Poland was due largely to the tanks — and seems to have closely followed methods laid down by General Guderian, Inspector General of Reich's armored forces. 'Penetrate strongly and deeply with a great number of tanks — simultaneously attacking enemy's batteries participating in the anti-tank fight.'

Attacks should be divided into four echelons: 1st echelon paralyzes enemy reserve and tanks — destroys anti-tank weapons; 2d echelon destroys enemy artillery and anti-tank weapons; 3d echelon's task is to enable the infantry, tank divisions and auxiliary units to traverse the enemy's position; 4th echelon, needed only in important engagements, acts as reserve under disposition of the high command and enveloping fronts that still resist. Special tanks are amphibian, smoke laying, gas, flame throwers, mine layers, etc.

Anti-Tank Defense Barriers.

A tank barrier in the main Westwall well back from the border consists of rows of concrete pyramids 4 to 6 feet high to catch and raise tank treads off the ground. Steel rails up-ended in concrete are also used. Accordion wire is sometimes used — this folds up like an accordion when a tank pushes through, entangling itself thoroughly in a tank's tracks. Land mines are also effective — these are cans filled with powder which explode on contact by a tank.

The anti-tank gun is a high-velocity piece which fires its shell in a low, almost straight line, directly at tanks. The new United States 37mm. anti-tank gun recently exhibited in action against real tanks, robot-propelled, at Aberdeen Proving Ground, is a good example. It weighs 815 pounds. Its projectile at 20 per cent from normal impact, penetrates 1½ inch armor at 1,000 yard range; it has a split trail, giving 60° maximum traverse; it fires 30 rounds per minute. The robot-controlled tank entered the firing range at about 650 yards distance. Firing flaming tracer shells, the new gun hit with its second round within 10 seconds after the tank was sighted. Each army provides itself with anti-tank guns effective against the known tanks of its most probable enemies. Anti-tank guns are the main and most effective defense against tanks. Large sectors of a front, on account of natural or artificial obstacles, may be invulnerable to tanks. Anti-tank guns are best used in large masses. According to some German tacticians every mile of active front should have at least 19 anti-tank guns. The Germans have 72 anti-tank guns per division; the French, 58; the British, about 50.

Aircraft.

Greater improvement is constantly being made in aircraft and aircraft defense than in any other weapons. The best minds of the nation and huge funds are constantly employed in research to improve the power of aircraft. Germany's air force contributed largely to the quick capture of Poland. The air offense was carefully planned. It first paralyzed the Polish air force by systematically destroying the major air fields, catching a large part of the Polish planes on the ground, then defeating the remaining Polish planes. It next bombed railways, bridges, and highways; cut off food and war material; disrupted mobilization; and dropped spies and machine gun forces in rear areas by parachute. This prepared the way for the rapid advance of mechanized forces. The Polish air bases were the conventional sort, easy to see and easy to hit. The Poles had few anti-aircraft guns and pursuit planes. The Germans, British, and French camouflage their air fields, and distribute their planes to many small bases, some underground.

The question of how effective the air bomber will be against ships is not yet settled. Up to date the attack of plane vs. ship does not come up to expectations of enthusiastic airmen — but attacks to date have been made by comparatively small numbers of bombers — not more than 50. The air raids by German bombers on Rosyth and Scapa Flow are important as matching modern aircraft against modern warships. The cruiser Southampton was hit on the bridge by a bomb. The Admiralty claimed it glanced off doing no structural damage. On October 17, two attacks were made. No direct hits were scored, although, according to English reports a bomb fell near the Iron Duke without serious damage. Eight planes were shot down and two believed damaged in the raids Oct. 16 and 17. Reports of an attack on a convoy by German bombers indicate that the fire of escort vessels and shore batteries downed four attackers and repulsed the attack with no damage to British ships. The bombers dove from clouds, dropped their 500 and 1,000 pound bombs and returned to cloud cover. British pursuit planes drove them away. No real test, however, has yet been made.

Military planes are now being built with speeds over 400 miles per hour. The Italian Savoias have a speed of 295 m.p.h., carrying 3 machine guns and a bomb load of 2,640 pounds. The German Messerschmidt single seat fighting monoplane has a speed of 310 m.p.h. with a range of 375 miles. The Dornier twin-engined bombers carry 2,200 pounds, have a range of 1,490 miles, speed 292 m.p.h. The British Hawker Hurricane has a top speed of 335 m.p.h. The distance record with load was recently made by the United States plane XB-15 landing at Wright Field after carrying a pay load of 4,409 pounds a distance of 3,107 miles at an average speed of 166.32 m.p.h. This Boeing super flying fortress is a 30-ton monoplane — 150-foot wing spread, powered with four 1,000 horsepower Pratt & Whitney Wasp engines, with a crew of seven men. American Aeronautical Engineers have developed the new Pratt & Whitney radial air-cooled engine rated at 1,600 horsepower above 20,000 feet, capable of delivering as one unit more power at high altitudes than any known engine. Leonard S. Hobbs, engineer manager of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, states that speed well in excess of 400 m.p.h. above 20,000 feet can be obtained through use of this new engine. The new four-bladed, controllable pitch 'full-feathering' propeller has been designed for small high speed pursuit planes such as Army P-36, by Curtis Propeller Division.

The latest type of air weapon is a combination 'attack-bomber' of the Douglas Aircraft Co. This can be used as an attack plane as well as light bomber and its high speed (said to be over 300 m.p.h.) renders needless accompanying pursuit planes when used as a bomber.

In addition to attack and bombing planes, the pursuit plane has made rapid progress. The new United States Curtis, P-36, of which some 200 were recently delivered to France, has proved a great success, according to French reports, in actual combat, especially in maneuverability and range.

Plane Production.

Large scale aerial warfare will cause huge losses in planes, estimated from 30 to 100 per cent per month. The German plane production has more than doubled since the war started. On Oct. 1st, Germany was reported to be producing, in 28 factories, 2,000 planes monthly. In addition to the ordinary bombardment, attack and pursuit planes, planes are used to transport troops in emergency, to drop spies or raiding parties behind the enemy lines, to spray gas (when gas is used), to photograph enemy positions and terrain.

The airplane bomb sight has been greatly improved, compensating for speed, wind and drift, thus greatly increasing the accuracy of bomb dropping.

Anti-aircraft Defense.

Anti-aircraft guns, airplanes and obstacles, such as balloon barrages, are the principal defenses against air attack. Anti-aircraft guns have become increasingly effective with improvements in the comples and highly accurate mechanism which is in unit with each gun. The 'height finder' stereoscopic optical device gives the altitude of the enemy's plane. It transmits this to the 'predictor.' At the predictor 2 men at telescopes follow the flight of the planes. By complicated reading, the course and speed of the target are determined. This information, plus that of the height finder, is assimilated within the mechanism of the predictor and the result transmitted to the gun. The predictor sets two pointers on the gun according to which the crew align the gun which then is ready to fire. The purpose of the anti-aircraft gun is to bring down enemy planes or force them to fly so high they can not bomb accurately. Only most important localities can have an elaborate anti-air defense similar to that of London. Balloon barrages are used to keep enemy bombers so high their bombing will be inaccurate. Hundreds of listening and observation posts, air patrols or patrol boats, extend 150 miles or more from the defended area. These are connected by phone or radio with central control stations from which orders are sent to the proper interceptor or pursuit plane air fields, from which the alerted planes take the air in time to intercept or drive off the bombers. When bombers are sighted their position is reported to sub-control stations and their positions plotted by ½ minute reports. Anti-aircraft gun positions with their unit searchlights, listening devices, etc., are notified and come into action and send information to leaders of defending formations in the air.

In the London defense organization and the Northern Defense Area were 480 guns, 706 searchlights, 245 height finders, 15,115 officers and men in the ground establishments; 15 interceptor pursuit squadrons and 3 barrage balloon squadrons with added personnel of 7,000. This defense is being still further expanded. In addition to large quantities of anti-aircraft artillery and interceptor pursuit planes some 600 barrage balloons are provided for the defense of the London area alone. A powerful counter-offensive striking the hostile air force at its base and against the installations that sustain hostile air operations is the most effective way of compelling an enemy to cease his attacks. See also AVIATION.

Mechanization and Motorization.

The great improvement in tanks, motorization of the artillery and trains, and reliability of motors and additional fire power has caused all important armies to radically change their divisional organizations. Taking the new American Division as a type, the number of men in the Infantry division is reduced from 13,500 to about 433 officers and 8,500 men and 1,100 motor vehicles. It contains 3 Infantry regiments each containing 3 battalions plus headquarters and Service companies. The Infantry regiment has 69 officers and 1,670 men. Each battalion contains 3 rifle companies and a heavy weapons company armed with machine guns and 81 mm. mortars, and one anti-tank platoon armed with 37 mm. guns. The machine guns are used not only against troops but against low-flying airplanes and light tanks. Each company has a headquarters platoon armed with light machine guns for general support and 60 mm. mortars for lobbing shells to reach enemy machine guns protected from flatter fire by hills or trenches. Each Infantry regiment has a 75 mm. artillery battalion linked with it as a combat team. For heavier fire the division has a battalion of 105 and one of 156 mm. howitzers which, like mortars, fire shells on a curved trajectory. The division has 36 75 mm. guns, 8 howitzers of 105 mm. and 8 howitzers of 155 mm. Mechanization of a unit means supplying it with tanks and armored cars in which it will actually fight. Motorization means to supply it with trucks to speed men, guns and supplies to the scene of battle. Light guns travel in trucks; cannon are towed behind. Faster firing, more flexible weapons and improved ammunition give the modern division nearly twice the fire power of the World War division of 28,000 men. The Engineer Battalion, Medical Battalion, Quartermaster Battalion, and Signal Corps Company complete the Division.

The German armored Division is typical of those of all first-class armies. The former three armored German divisions each contained some 600 armored vehicles, but being too unwieldy was reduced, and the divisions increased from 3 to 6. Each division is said to comprise: 2 Tank regiments (about 200 tanks each); 2 Mechanized Infantry regiments; 2 Motorized Infantry regiments; 1 Engineer battalion; 1 Signal battalion; 1 Air Cooperating squadron; 1 Motorized Artillery regiment. The mechanized Infantry regiment is equipped with three-ton, four-wheeled, armored cars and eight-ton, six-wheeled armored cars. The light car carries four men and a light machine gun; the heavy car, 3 men, an anti-tank gun, and a heavy machine gun. These motorized and mechanized divisions in conjunction with a 6 to 1 preponderance of air force enabled Germany to make the extremely rapid penetration and subjugation of Poland.

In spite of the importance of the air force and tanks, the mechanized divisions and the increased power of artillery — the machine gun, and the automatic and semi-automatic rifles and the men who use them, the Infantry, still rule the battlefield. Today the armies of Europe have great quantities of machine guns of all types — the Browning, Vickers, the Lewis, the Bren, all capable of firing 200 to 800 shots a minute, all supported by automatic and semi-automatic rifles, by 3-inch trench mortars, and by smaller light mortars. Hand grenades and the bayonet complete the Infantryman's weapons. It is the interlacing fire of the machine gun and automatic weapons which give the Infantry its importance. Its mobility has been increased (it often travels in trucks or armored vehicles) and its fire power has been enormously increased. The field artillery is its chief aid. Most of the guns are now moved behind trucks or 'half-trucks' — trucks with tractor treads instead of rear wheels. The oil-engined plane and the oil-engined tank have vastly extended the scope of the battlefield and brought about major modifications of the tactics of battle. The modern weapons with which the present European war is started will not be the sole weapons with which it is ended — some of the best brains and best facilities of the world are working constantly to make improvements and surprises; and if the war lasts long enough, they may well bring some into maturity. See also AVIATION; NATIONAL GUARD.