1942: Egypt

The position of Egypt was of the greatest military importance during 1942. In a certain sense it may be said that one of the crucial battles for the outcome of the World War II was the battle of the Nile. The late spring of 1942 carried the German-Italian armies under Field Marshal Rommel deep into Egypt. They reached a point, El Alamein, not more than 70 miles from Alexandria, the great Egyptian port at the mouth of the Nile. At that time the Germans hoped that they would be able to conquer Alexandria and Cairo, and thus in control of Egypt and the Suez Canal push on into the interior of Asia, to gain possession of the rich oil wells of the Near East and to achieve a junction with their Japanese allies. This hope was never realized. The British eighth army succeeded in a brilliant campaign not only in driving the Germans out of Egypt but in turning their defeat into a rout. By the end of 1942 Egypt and the Suez Canal, an important life line of the United Nations, seemed stronger than at any other time in the war.

Great Britain and Egyptian Democracy.

Great Britain, which had occupied Egypt in 1882 for strategic reasons, gave Egypt her independence in 1922, and by 1936 all the outstanding questions between the two countries had been cleared up and Great Britain had helped Egypt to gain complete independence and sovereignty. The negotiations between Great Britain and Egypt had been conducted with the Egyptian nationalist party, the Wafd, which represented the overwhelming majority of the Egyptian people and at the same time its democratic aspirations. Thus Britain had gained the loyal support of the Egyptian people. Only a small reactionary group around the court was friendly to Fascism and opposed to Egyptian democracy as well as to Great Britain. The triumph of democracy in Egypt was assured when on Feb. 5, 1942, King Fuad had to call upon Mustafa Pasha Nahas, the leader of the Wafd, to form a Cabinet. Mustafa Nahas became president of the Council of Ministers and assumed at the same time the portfolios of the interior and of foreign affairs. Elections were held March 26, 1942, and returned a Chamber of Deputies in which the Wafd held 216 of the 264 seats. The popularity of Great Britain was especially great in the spring of 1942. That the present Egyptian government means to keep its record straight was shown by the arrest of the former Prime Minister Ali Maher Pasha, a close friend of the King, for reasons concerned with the security of the state. The new Prime Minister told the Chamber that he will permit no action that will endanger the position of allied armies in Egyptian territory or cause anxiety to the men fighting for democracy. The Parliament has approved overwhelmingly Egypt's loyalty to Britain. Ali Maher Pasha was believed to have been the leading Axis sympathizer in Egypt, and suspicion was expressed that he had transmitted military secrets to the Axis.

Internal Conditions.

The Egyptian government has devoted its attention to strengthening the army, building new airdromes, and cultivating a variety of foodstuffs so as to avert shortages due to the preponderant concentration of the peasants on production of cotton. In spite of her fertility Egypt is forced to import much of its food because so much of the soil is given over to cotton. With the outbreak of the war the export market for cotton dwindled. In 1934, in a total value of exports of £E 34,080,913, cotton represented the value of £E 24,736,918, or more than two thirds. To alleviate the situation, caused by the stoppage of exports, the British government had bought almost the whole crop of Egyptian cotton in 1940, and in 1941 bought it in equal shares with the Egyptian Government, to be stored and later shipped abroad as soon as transportation facilities and markets will allow. Meanwhile Great Britain shipped thousands of tons of foodstuffs to Egypt. A sharp rise in prices made living conditions difficult and increased the cost of the maintenance of the British army. The subsidizing of cotton growing by the British, most welcome to the Egyptians, made a more rational utilization of the land difficult. The Egyptian minister of agriculture announced on July 16, 1942, the reduction of Egypt's cotton acreage by more than 50 per cent from 1941. The government offered bonuses to farmers for growing cereals instead of cotton. Thus the area under cotton will be reduced to 700,000 acres as compared with 1,600,000 last year, and the cotton crop will be the smallest in 50 years. This however will not be regrettable, because there is still a large quantity of the last two crops in storage, and the new arrangement will cut down the necessity for imports and thus save valuable shipping space.

External Relations.

In his speech from the throne at the opening of the Egyptian parliament on March 30, King Fuad stressed the aim of fulfilling the treaty of friendship with Great Britain in an atmosphere of confidence and equality. Special emphasis was put upon the ties of fraternity, friendship and cooperation, uniting Egypt with the Arab peoples and the Mohammedans of the Near East. One of the sons of King Ibn Saud of Arabia, Emir Mansour, visited Egypt, and the cordial relations between this leading Arab monarch and guardian of the Mohammedan faith, and the British did much to impress the Egyptians. A conference on Arab culture and education was called in Cairo to bring about a similarity of curricula of instruction in all Arab-speaking lands and to coordinate Arab cultural activities.

The British have named a British secretary of state for Middle Eastern affairs, who will reside in Cairo, showing thereby the importance attached to the Middle East in British diplomacy. The first occupant of this office was Oliver Lyttelton, whose place was taken in February 1942 by Richard G. Casey, formerly Australian envoy to the United States. The British secretary of state for Middle Eastern affairs is a member of the British War Cabinet. On Nov. 23 the American minister to Egypt, Alexander Kirk, and the United States commander in the Middle East, Lieut. General Frank Andrews, called on Premier Mustafa-Nahas Pasha who expressed to them his great satisfaction at seeing United States forces cooperating with Great Britain, Egypt's ally, in the defense of democracy and the small nations. President Roosevelt replied in a letter in which he emphasized that the Americans are proud of the friendship and goodwill of the people of Egypt, knowing that they are united with them in the common desire to create a world in which mankind shall be free.

1941: Egypt

Egypt, an ally of Great Britain, found herself during 1941 in an important strategic position as one of the important British bases for war developments in the Near and Middle East.

Suez Canal and Libyan Campaigns.

The Suez Canal, one of the most important life arteries of the British Empire, passes through Egyptian territory. In the course of this war the Suez Canal was frequently mentioned as a center of German aspirations, and therefore British and Imperial forces watched most closely over the protection of Egypt. As the Suez Canal forms the link between Britain and South Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand, troops from all these parts of the British Commonwealth of Nations participated in the defense of Egypt.

Although Egypt did not become a center of war activities, nevertheless, it was the base of the British campaign in Libya which opened on Dec. 9, 1940, with the offensive of the British Army of the Nile against the Italians in the northwestern part of the Egyptian desert. By Jan. 22, 1941, the British had captured Tobruk and by Feb. 6, Bengasi, the capital of Eastern Libya or Cyrenaica. But in a counter-offensive undertaken by German motorized units, the British, thinned out by withdrawals of units to Greece, were forced to evacuate Libya in April 1941, with the exception of Tobruk where a British garrison held out, and to withdraw to bases in Egypt. It was only at the end of November 1941, that the British armies started another attempt at conquering Libya against the strongly entrenched German and Italian armored divisions. This new offensive was made possible by the fact that the large amount of war material produced in the United States had been shipped to Egypt, and that Egypt had become one of the centers in which the American arsenal of democracy fulfilled its lend-lease program. The influx of so many British and Allied soldiers and the vast amount of machinery made itself felt decisively in the internal life of Egypt. The importance which Egypt had gained as a center of the Near and Middle Eastern defense system, was expressed in the visit which the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden, and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Sir John G. Dill, paid in February 1941.

Internal Affairs.

The Egyptian Parliament devoted much of its time during 1941 to the discussion of the internal problems of the country in view of the war crisis. Probably the most remunerative enterprise in Egypt, the Suez Canal Company, suffered heavily through the war for the first time in its existence. As this company was predominantly French owned and directed, the collapse of France, where its headquarters were, immobilized its affairs. Its receipts dropped heavily in view of the fact that commercial shipping in the Mediterranean ceased almost entirely and that the Canal itself was repeatedly bombed. The Egyptian military government disallowed the claims of the bond holders and ruled that the company should not pay dividends on the ground that the operation of the Canal was vital to Egyptian economy, imperative to Britain, and an obligation of Egypt as Britain's ally. The Egyptian Parliament also considered measures to ensure the employment of Egyptians by foreign firms and to place Egyptians on boards of directors of foreign companies doing business in Egypt. All reports to be submitted to the government were to be written in Arabic instead of in English or French. Proposals for the introduction of an excess profits tax were also considered.

At the beginning of June the cabinet resigned in an effort to create an all-inclusive national government, but the new cabinet under the premier Hussein Sirry Pasha was virtually identical with the former cabinet. Meanwhile the affair of General Aziz el Masir Pasha, former Chief of Staff of the Egyptian Army, aroused much attention. He was known as a fervent Axis sympathizer who had attempted to flee from Egypt by airplane with important documents, but was captured in his hideout in a house in a Cairo suburb. The trial against him began at the end of November, and he was accused of crimes injuring the security of the state.

Imports and Exports.

Egypt is a country producing mainly cotton, and is thus forced to import a large part of the needed food stuffs. On Aug. 12 an agreement was concluded between the British and Egyptian governments, according to which the Egyptian cotton crop of the current year would be bought in equal parts by the two governments at prices equaling those of last year when Great Britain bought almost the whole crop of 7,800,000 bales for about £25,000,000. An Anglo-Egyptian Cotton Purchase Commission was formed which started to buy the crop in Upper Egypt by the middle of September and that in Lower Egypt by the beginning of November with funds advanced by Great Britain. The purchased cotton will be stored and later shipped abroad as soon as transportation facilities and markets will permit. Meanwhile Great Britain shipped thousands of tons of foodstuffs to Egypt, to feed the British armies, balancing the foodstuff against the cotton, for Great Britain feels bound to support the Egyptian cotton growers, so as to keep the people of Egypt contented. Nevertheless the shortage of some foods resulted in a sharp price rise in view of the fact that the consumption has increased and that no general system of rationing has been introduced. Living standards in Egypt have been high compared with those of Europe. Living costs in Egypt were reported by the end of October to have risen 55 per cent since the war began and 43 per cent since Jan. 1. This situation prompted the British and Egyptian authorities to develop a plan to make Egypt more self-sufficient in foodstuffs by restricting the acreage devoted to cotton and having wheat and other foodstuffs grown instead. Thus, in spite of the fact that the great port of Alexandria was several times bombed and a number of lives were lost on these occasions, on the whole, Egypt suffered relatively little from the impact of the War.

1940: Egypt

Egypt, a kingdom in northeast Africa and an ally of Great Britain, found herself in 1940 within the field of combat after Italy's entrance into the war. At the outbreak of the war, Egypt broke off her diplomatic relations with Germany, but did not join Great Britain actively. Even the most extreme nationalist party, however, the Wafd, under former Prime Minister Mustapha Nahas Pasha, declared on April 2 in a memorandum presented to the British Ambassador Sir Miles Lampson that the party had decided in a conference of its party executives that it was willing to assist the allied cause if Great Britain would promise that immediately after the war all British soldiers would leave Egypt and that Egypt would be represented at the Peace Conference. The entrance of Italy into the war made the question of Egypt's participation of more imminent importance.

The Egyptian Cabinet, headed by Aly Maher Pasha, tendered its resignation to King Farouk on June 23, after Egypt had severed its diplomatic relations with Italy. On June 27 King Farouk asked Hassan Sabry Pasha, former Egyptian Minister to London and later Minister of Defense, to form an Egyptian Cabinet. The declaration of the Mediterranean as a war zone reacted also considerably on Egypt's economic position, as it implied not only the break-off of economic relations between Egypt and Italy, but also between Egypt and the United States. The new Cabinet regarded it as one of its tasks to establish new ways of communication with the United States. The new Ministry which was officially formed was a coalition of all Egyptian parties except the Wafdist; the British had very strongly desired the inclusion of the Wafdist opposition and its popular leader, Mustafa Nahas Pasha, but this demand had been opposed by the king. The new Cabinet included four Saadists, four Liberal Constitutionalists, one Ittehadist, one Nationalist and six non-party members, among whom was the Premier himself, who also accepted the portfolio of Foreign Affairs. At a secret session of the Egyptian Chamber of Deputies on Aug. 21, the Prime Minister declared that the Egyptian troops would fight actively on the side of the British if Egyptian territory were invaded. Italian propaganda had been most active in Egypt, trying to impress upon the Egyptians the fact that the Italians wished to fight only Great Britain, and that an Italian victory would undoubtedly bring Egypt's complete independence from England.

It is difficult to say how far this Italian propaganda impressed the Egyptians. Many Egyptians distrust Italy much more than they dislike Great Britain; on the other hand, some Egyptians, among them the King, harbor the ambitious plan of making Egypt the center of the Islamic world. It was in that spirit that the government of Egypt, supported by the governments of Iran and Iraq, suggested to the League of Nations that a Moslem be elected to fill the next vacancy on the bench of the Permanent Court of International Justice at The Hague. In any case, the Egyptians set up an active counter-espionage bureau and started in June to combat Fifth Column activities in Egypt. The failure of the Italians to make any appreciable headway against Great Britain in the Mediterranean, and later on the Italian defeats by the Greeks, impressed the Egyptian people, especially also in view of the fact that a very large Greek colony is living in Egypt.

Meanwhile, the British reinforced their Middle Eastern fighting forces with troops which came from Australia and New Zealand as well as from the British Isles. The British troops in the Middle East were under the command of Lieutenant General Sir Archibald P. Wavell. The Italian army started a large-scale attack across the desert from Libya into Egypt at the beginning of September. Italian mobile columns, preceded by tanks and armored cars and supported by intensive aerial activity, moved along the Mediterranean coast to start the long-heralded Fascist invasion of Egypt. Although this invasion had been prepared most carefully for a long time and although it was under the command of Italy's most able fighter in desert war, Marshall Rodolfo Graziani, the Italian armies did not get further than about sixty miles into Egyptian territory, and were stopped at Sidi Barrani, a small and insignificant oasis in Egypt. They were unable for several months to continue their advance from there to the more important village of Mersa Matruh, which is connected by a railroad with Alexandria. The British harassed the Italians by bombardments from the sea as well as from the air, and on Dec. 9 they were able to launch a counter-attack against the Fascist forces and to take a large number of prisoners. At the end of the year no Italian troops remained on Egypt's soil and the British carried their offensive into Libya. (See also GREAT BRITAIN; ITALY; EUROPEAN WAR.)

While the actual fighting had come to an almost complete standstill, the Egyptian government went through a crisis, in view of the fact that its four Saadist party members resigned on Sept. 22 when they demanded an immediate declaration of war against Italy. Ahmed Maher Pasha, the leader of the Saadist party which includes many of the most influential political circles of the country, and president of the Chamber of Deputies, appealed to the nation in a speech to take up arms immediately alongside the British. Prime Minister Hassan Sabry Pasha asserted that the Italian operations so far did not constitute an invasion, and that the British were not then asking the Egyptians to take any steps beyond those already taken.

The Cabinet posts relinquished by the Saadists were filled by doubling up; Egypt declared martial law and all Italians in Egypt were rounded up as a precautionary measure. Egypt's Parliament was reconvened on Nov. 14. In reading the king's speech from the throne at the opening session, Prime Minister Hassan Sabry Pasha collapsed and died, after having read the following declaration: 'Egypt, who is anxious to maintain her integrity and independence, is equally anxious to fulfill her obligations toward her great ally, Britain, and to carry out her alliance of friendship in the letter and in the spirit.' On the following day, Hussein Sirry Pasha, the Minister of Public Works and Communications, was appointed successor to Hassan Sabry Pasha, and the Chamber reelected the leader of the Saadist party, Ahmed Maher Pasha, as president of the Egyptian Chamber of Deputies. The population of Egypt was generally in favor of following a policy of close cooperation with Great Britain and of all support for Great Britain, without, however, joining actively in the war as long as the vital centers of the Nile Valley were not invaded by Fascist forces.

1939: Egypt

Egypt continued her progressive development through 1939. The Prime Minister of Egypt, Mohammed Mahmud Pasha, and his Cabinet, who had been appointed on June 24, 1938, resigned on Aug. 12, 1939. The new Cabinet was formed on Aug. 18 with Aly Maher Pasha as Prime Minister. Most of the members of the new Ministry are nonparty men and experts in their particular spheres. Only 5 members belong to the Saadist party, the second strongest party in the Parliament; whereas the liberals, the strongest party, refused to join a nonparty government. In a public statement the new Premier declared that the aim of the new Government was the improvement of the welfare of the peasant and working classes, the rise in standards of living and of health. This change of cabinets had, however, no effects on internal or foreign policy.

Italian and German Influence.

The European War which broke out at the beginning of September put Egypt and her strategic position into the limelight. Germany and Italy have both been most active in their propaganda in Egypt; and Germany especially had made Egypt the center of her propaganda for all Arabic-speaking countries. The basis of Germany's propaganda in Egypt had been laid by Rudolf Hess, the personal assistant to Chancellor Hitler. Hess who had been born in Egypt and therefore knew the local conditions well, was followed by Dr. Goebbels who paid a hasty visit to Egypt. The Fascist propaganda was facilitated by the fact that there is a very large Italian colony residing in Egypt. The outbreak of the war eased, however, the situation for Egypt, because Italy, contrary to all expectations, did not enter the war on the side of Germany. Thus the Mediterranean remained peaceful. Nevertheless, in view of the position of Egypt, as the guardian of the Suez Canal the military preparations were speeded up, the important ports of Alexandria and Port Said were strengthened in their defences and the modernization of the Egyptian army was pushed with great vigor. In accordance with the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance of August 1936, Egypt declared immediately at the outbreak of the war her full solidarity with Great Britain and France. Prime Minister Aly Maher Pasha declared that Egypt's attitude would have been the same if the Treaty of Alliance had not existed because Egypt felt her cause to be identical with the cause of the democratic powers. Egypt insisted also upon her most friendly feelings towards the other Arabic countries and towards Turkey. Earlier in the year the Egyptian Foreign Minister had visited the Turkish capital with the view of achieving the closest cooperation with the Turkish Government. During the whole year the Egyptian Government showed several times its active support of the cause of the Palestinian Arabs and its interest in the development of Saudi Arabia.

Suez Canal.

Egypt was naturally fundamentally interested in the maintenance of the security of the Suez Canal which lies on Egyptian territory. The concession of the Suez Canal is to expire in 1968, when the property of the Suez Canal Society is to fall to Egypt. At the end of 1938 the Italian Government had raised claims to a share in the control and property of the Suez Canal. During 1939 this claim was not pushed officially by Italy, but it is well known that Italy has in no way abandoned her aspirations regarding the Suez Canal, which she considers a most vital link with her East African Empire. In spite of the continuation of peace in the Mediterranean in December 1939, Egypt did not in the least relinquish her watchful attitude and her military preparations, as Soviet pressure against Turkey increased and Italy reaffirmed her alliance with Germany and her negative attitude toward the democracies. See also ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN; IRAN; PALESTINE.

1938: Egypt

During 1938 the newly-acquired complete independence of Egypt found expression in an increase of the Egyptian army, which, with the help of a British military mission, was thoroughly modernized and enlarged. Preparations were made also for a rapid increase of the Egyptian air force and for the creation of an Egyptian navy. The treaty between Great Britain and Egypt of August 1936 was revised to the advantage of Egypt by a redistribution of the financial charges imposed upon the country in connection with military constructions and with the transfer of the British army from Cairo and Alexandria to the Suez Canal Zone. The condominium between Great Britain and Egypt in the Sudan was made a reality by the admission into the Sudan of Egyptian troops and Egyptian officials.

In the internal policy of the country the Wafd, the leading Nationalist party, under the leadership of Mustafa Nahas Pasha, suffered an eclipse. Many members left the party and formed, under the name of Saadists, a group of dissident Wafdists which cooperated with the Government under the leadership of Mohamed Mahmud Pasha. The elections in the spring of 1938 gave a great majority to the supporters of the Government, which also had the full confidence of the youthful King Farouk. On April 12, 1938, the new Parliament, the Seventh Parliament in Egypt, was opened by the King, who in his address from the throne promised a number of social and economic reforms.

Egypt participated also in the negotiations for the Anglo-Italian Pact of April 16, 1938. This pact reaffirmed the declaration of Constantinople, of Oct, 29, 1888, according to which the use of the Suez Canal was to be free to all countries at all times. In view of the great interest which Egypt has in the Nile, she was also officially informed of the fact that the Italian Government had reaffirmed its promise, given to Great Britain on April 3, 1936, to respect the British (and Egyptian) interest in the waters of Lake Tana, in Ethiopia. This lake is the source of the Blue Nile, which joins with the White Nile to form the famous river upon which the life of Egypt absolutely depends. Towards the end of 1938 Italy raised a claim to a share in the administration of the Suez Canal, which forms the most important link between Italy and her East African Empire. Whereas Great Britain held by far the first rank in the tonnage passing through the Canal, the Italians came second. The Suez Canal is administered by a private company, the majority of the shares being in French hands. The Italian Government demanded an influence in this private company and a right of determining the policy of the Suez Canal. In connection with this demand, the Egyptian Government made it known that in view of the fact that the Suez Canal is on Egyptian territory, it wishes to be consulted before any decisions are considered.