1942: Horticulture

The year 1942 has seen, in the world of horticulture, a vast shift in interest from the ornamental to the practical. The turning point in this respect was reached at a conference in Washington, called by the Secretary of Agriculture, in December 1941. Up to this time — and even during the period of the conference — the Federal Department of Agriculture, and some of the State Departments, looked with little favor upon the stimulation of home vegetable gardening as advocated by the Men's Garden Clubs of America and some other organizations.

The amateur gardeners of America however, as was plainly indicated at this conference, were not to be side-tracked in their determination to take a real part in the War Effort to produce more food by growing their own vegetables and thus releasing commercial crops for the armed forces and those of the United Nations who were in need of food supplies.

As the year wore on, however, and it became evident that there would be real food shortages, the Department finally came out whole-heartedly in favor of having every family that had, or could procure, a suitable plot of ground, produce as much as possible of its own vegetable supply.

Victory Garden Campaign.

Despite the initial lukewarm attitude of the Federal Department and the definite opposition for any but farm vegetable gardens of many State Agricultural Departments who did not realize early in the year that labor and transportation difficulties would create almost immediate food shortages, 15,000,000 home vegetable gardens in suburban, urban and farm areas were actually planted and worked during the past year. In short, the eminently successful Victory Garden Campaign of 1942 is without question the outstanding feature of the year in the world of horticulture.

This educational and practical campaign was conducted in various ways: by national organizations such as the Federated Garden Clubs, and Men's Garden Clubs of America; by Civilian Defense organizations; State Agricultural Departments through county agents, Four-H Clubs and other such avenues; by Botanical Gardens; horticultural writers and editors through garden magazines and other publications; and by the tardy but eventually completely cooperative propaganda of the Federal Department of Agriculture.

Two series of lectures on vegetable gardening conducted in mid-town Manhattan by the New York Botanical Garden in collaboration with the New York Times, filled a Broadway theatre to overflowing night after night, bringing eager and intelligent gardeners to the city from suburban sections to hear recognized authorities give practical talks on all phases of the subject. The 1942 series were so successful that a third series, the first for 1943, is in progress as this report is being written.

Outstanding among urban efforts is the 1942 Victory Garden Campaign of Chicago, organized by the Office of Civilian Defense, the staff of the Chicago Park District, the Women's and Men's Garden Clubs, commercial growers and civic organizations. This campaign started with a series of lectures during the winter, and by spring an elaborate organization had been worked out, the efficient functioning of which resulted in more than 6,000 Victory gardens within the city limits of Chicago, representing a total area under cultivation of almost 8,000,000 square feet. The Office of Civilian Defense of Chicago estimates that even if not more than one pound of vegetables was produced on each square foot of this land (a most conservative estimate) the city gardeners of Chicago produced at least 3,500 tons of home grown fresh vegetables in 1942. These figures do not include the Victory garden activities in the suburban sections surrounding the city where registered reports show over 10,000 gardens with a total area of more than 500 acres. Over 100,000 families in and around Chicago participated in this effort during the past year. They have bigger plans for 1943, as have home gardeners the country over.

Climatic Conditions.

The weather during the past year, contrary to that of the three previous, proved extremely favorable. Rainfall was more uniform over greater sections of the country than it has been in two decades. The winter of 1941-42, though not severe, kept the soil well frozen over long periods, a favorable condition for perennial plants which are inclined to 'heave' out of the ground and rot when subjected to alternate freezing and thawing. The present winter, though much more rigorous than its predecessor, has, up to the new year, maintained a pretty constant freeze which promises well for the coming season of growth.

Insects.

Insects and other pests, as is their habit in these times, proved increasingly troublesome last summer, but the destruction caused by these saboteurs was met with determination, science and hard work by the country's gardeners.

Among the worst of the insect pests were the cut worms which descended on many sections in alarming numbers, mowing down young vegetable plants and freshly sprouted seedlings. Poison mashes and cardboard collars for young plants had to be used consistently to insure protection. Rabbits too proclaimed 1942 a gala year. They appeared in force in well settled sections where guns and poison could not be used with safety. Individuals developed remarkable talents for tunneling under and squeezing through good tight fences and for scorning such deterrents as moth balls, flapping newspapers and tobacco dust. The family cat and terrier, box traps, protective coatings for young trees and even electric fences were employed to combat these pests.

Science.

In general pest control, the pendulum has recently swung toward the use of dusts rather than of liquid sprays. Agricultural Experiment Stations recommended pyrethrum and rotenone (non-poisonous) dusts for the control of the majority of chewing and sucking insects. A shortage in the materials which go into these dusts had already begun to develop before the end of the 1942 growing season so that their sale was restricted to those who needed them for vegetable crops, the supply being insufficient for ornamentals. For the coming year, formulas have been perfected for special Victory insecticides and fertilizers made of ingredients non-essential to war production.

The airplane is taking an ever larger part in the control of pests in commercial crops and forests, by broadcasting dusts from the air. Expert, even daredevil fliers are needed for this work, especially for low-growing plants such as cotton and beans, since the planes must fly extremely low to deliver their dust where it will do the most good.

Higher percentages in seed germination and in successful transplanting and propagation from slips have been attained through increased use of improved hormone dusts used to stimulate root growth. Experiments show increasing numbers of plants which respond to these stimuli.

On the other hand the silence of deserved oblivion has fallen on the Vitamin B₁ furore which rocked the horticultural world for several years. This product, which in the writer's opinion, constituted the greatest horticultural hoax of the age, has been put in its place largely because the gardener of today is growing seriously, not experimenting with a few pot plants in a window sill. The same may be said for chemical gardening. This branch of horticultural science, though extremely valuable in the field of research and in practice for certain commercial crops and amateur plant culture especially under glass, is more trouble than it is worth to the average dirt gardener whether he is growing flowers or vegetables.

Plant Breeding.

There is a new aspect to the current plant breeding picture, due to the war which has prevented the usual influx of foreign novelty introductions. In some cases however, valuable plant stocks have been shipped here from abroad to escape possible destruction.

American breeders, stimulated by the need for native-bred plants, have risen to greater heights than ever before in creating new varieties of ornamental and food plants especially suited to American conditions and resistant to our most prevalent plant diseases.

Of special interest among 1942 introductions are: the golden Tomato Jubilee, a richly colored, globe-shaped fruit, meaty and solid; a new table variety of soybean, Giant Green, which many people prefer to limas when cooked green and which may also be dried for winter use; an American strain of the Italian Zucchini Squash, long, narrow, dark in color, a heavy bearer on bushy plants, and of fine flavor; and the first American bred All-double Petunia America (former varieties of this type having been created in Japan).

Last but not least are the distinctly American roses from such master breeders as Hovarth and Brownell: hybrid roses which carry the blood of strong, sturdy species along with that of the beautiful but fragile Teas, thus producing varieties which are able to meet the exigencies of our American climate.

Garden Trends.

Garden trends for the year to come are, of course, all in the direction of productive gardening, but with a firm determination on the part of all to maintain established ornamental plantings and to keep home grounds colorful and attractive for the Duration by the use of easily grown annuals and perennials.

The Spring Flower Shows which were held with their usual success in 1942, have been called off for 1943. Gas rationing, transportation and labor difficulties have made this step inevitable, but local garden activities in individual communities will take their places. In New York City, a Garden Week is one of the things planned for mid-March to fill the gap left by the absence of the International Flower Show at Grand Central Palace.

A Victory Harvest Show Campaign which was organized in the summer of 1942 to raise $2,000,000 for Army and Navy Relief did not produce the hoped-for results. The Harvest Shows, backed by commercial growers, were splendidly staged in many urban and suburban sections and in the display gardens of some of the country's leading nurseries. Gasoline and tire rationing, the increased working tempo of the American public, and the fact that almost all flower lovers were actually in the midst of harvesting and canning home-grown vegetables in August and September when the shows were put on, prevented the record attendance which was needed to produce a 'box office success.' This failure has turned the trend for 1943 away from big shows and displays and toward hard, productive work.

The program of the Federated Garden Clubs has put on gloves and overalls and gone all out for food gardening and home canning. The very active part which these clubs are taking in the Victory Garden Campaign is helping tremendously to spread its sphere of influence from small home plots to those of large acreage.

Horticultural Literature.

Horticultural literature during 1942 reflects like a mirror, the interest of the public in productive gardening. A dozen or more books on home vegetable gardening have appeared in the last twelve months. These range from the thorough-going reliable text book to the smart modern volume which advises planting 'drifts' of beets in the flower bed, edged by rows of lettuces garnished with annual flowers! As a group these books shows more than anything else the general neglect and oblivion into which home vegetable gardening has fallen since the first World War. The haste with which many of these volumes have been written, and the superficiality of the material presented, testifies to the lack of practical knowledge of the subject prevalent among garden writers as well as among amateur gardeners. There are good, practical books in the long list of recent publications, among them Home Vegetable Gardening by Charles H. Nissley of Rutgers University and A Manual of Home Vegetable Gardening by Francis C. Coulter.

A new magazine, devoted exclusively to gardening, and with a declared editorial policy of emphasis on home food production for the Duration, came to birth at the close of 1942. Its record-breaking first issue circulation (over the 100,000 mark) is a sure indication of the widespread current interest of the American people in gardening in general and vegetable gardening in particular.

1941: Horticulture

During 1941 the interest in horticulture and the horticultural problems, on the whole, fared well. While there are no Government statistics on the status of horticulture, such barometers as do exist all show an upward trend. Attendance at the big Spring Flower Shows throughout the country reached new heights as did also the circulation of the leading horticultural and garden magazines. Seed companies and nurseries reported very satisfactory gains over the preceding two years, despite the fact that the department stores, chain stores and even the big mail order houses are doing a rapidly increasing business in this field.

For the third successive year, one factor which was not entirely favorable was the weather. A late and mean spring was followed by a spell of premature summer weather which brought out simultaneously flowers that normally would bloom several weeks apart. This added to the severe damage done many hardy plants, particularly broadleaved evergreens, by an unusual combination of bare ground, extremely cold weather and high winds during late winter.

A late summer and fall drought of almost unprecedented extent and severity not only put an end to the season's effort of many amateur gardeners, but dealt extensive injury to commercial crops throughout the East and Middlewest and even left many towns and small cities without a water supply.

On the West Coast, on the contrary, unprecedented rains delayed both the planting and the harvesting of many seed and bulb crops.

Seed and Bulb Supply.

This factor, together with an almost total shutdown on the importation of seeds and bulbs from abroad has left shortages in many items for the spring of 1942. This has proved most serious in the case of a number of vegetables, such as carrots and onions, which will be wanted in greater quantities than normally because of the war garden program which is to be carried out on a national scale.

The latest survey on the available supply of vegetable seeds, however, indicates that, with care and the substitution of some varieties of the same species for others which are usually more in demand, there will be enough vegetable seed to go around. The Department of Agriculture urges that particular care be taken in the preparation of soil and sowing seeds more thinly so that less 'thinning out' than usual will have to be done, in order that there may be sufficient seed to meet the demand.

The supply of bulbs for fall planting, however, was much more adequate than a year ago, due in part to increased importations of some items from England, particularly tulips, which more than offset the absence of any importations from Japan. A much more important factor was the increase in American bulb production. The beginning of this industry in the United States really dates from the time of the first World War. There is every indication that the impetus given to this comparatively new enterprise in America by the present War will not only see it firmly established, but on so broad a scale that the American market for flower bulbs in the future is likely to be adequately supplied from home sources.

Science in Horticulture.

Perhaps the most important thing in the development of science as applied to horticulture during the past year has been the wide introduction of starter solutions in connection with transplanting and setting out seedling plants. The term starter solution has been given to highly concentrated liquid fertilizers applied in the furrow or the planting hole at the time of setting out plants, or to the surface immediately after.

The use of chemical starter solutions in this way is an outgrowth of the so-called 'Chemical Gardening' which has been in vogue for the last few years. The interest in Soilless Gardening — the growing of plants in water or in inert material such as sand, gravel or cinders — by means of adding carefully balanced chemical solutions has, so far as the amateur is concerned, practically disappeared. Some commercial greenhouse crops, such as roses, carnations, and tomatoes, have been grown very successfully and for these soilless culture is being extended. However, for the amateur with necessarily limited equipment, it has not proved very practical.

Starter solutions for transplanting, however, can be used by anyone. The highly concentrated fertilizers manufactured for the purpose are merely mixed with water and applied (in the home garden) with an ordinary watering can. Directions should be carefully followed as this — like other good things — can be overdone.

In reality the starter solution practice is not a new thing. Market gardeners of a generation or two ago frequently used liquid manure, made by mixing chicken manure or cow manure with water and then diluting it to the proper strength, in setting out such crops as lettuce, cabbage and tomatoes.

The automatic ventilation of greenhouses has been developed during the past year or two to a point where commercial installations are now being made. This of course offers a tremendous saving in labor and also results in the maintenance of a much more even temperature in the houses. For the amateur who has a small greenhouse and must be away during the day the advantages are obvious. The automatic equipment, which is not unduly expensive, does away with the danger of having a greenhouse full of plants injured by a sudden drop or rise in temperature.

In plant breeding the use of the drug colchicine, for which such marvelous results were predicted a few years ago, has given us little worth while. Most of the new varieties developed by the use of the drug, while frequently showing an increase in size of flower, or a change in the habit of the plant, has in most instances resulted in forms so abortive that they have had little appeal for the general public. However, colchicine has made possible crosses which could not before be accomplished and in this respect promises to be of real value to the plant breeder.

The use of X-rays in plant breeding has also fallen far short of the claims at first made for it. Two new calendulas introduced in 1942 under the name of the 'X-Ray Twins' are said to have resulted from X-ray treatment of the parents.

Preparations of Vitamin B — so widely hailed a couple of years ago as the most marvelous discovery of all time in horticulture — has disappeared from the public eye almost as rapidly as it gained ascendency.

Plant Breeding.

Plant breeding is of course the most important part of horticulture — and the most important thing in plant breeding during the past year has been the further swing of this combination art and science to America. Even before the War started there was a strong tendency in this direction. The events of the last few years, and particularly of the last twelve months, have inevitably accelerated this trend to the point where, in all probability, American leadership in this field will be maintained for a long time to come.

Most striking of the new annuals introduced during the past year was a new Morning Glory called 'Pearly Gates,' a sport from the popular Heavenly Blue variety of this species. It is interesting to note that 'Pearly Gates' received more votes from the expert judges who conduct the All-American Trials than any other annual submitted since the All-America Committee began its work in 1933.

Among perennials, one of the most outstanding developments was the strain of extra hardy chrysanthemums developed at the University of Chicago. This new type has not yet been distributed to the public so it is too early to tell how it will work out in actual garden tests, but the results of experiment at Chicago looks most promising.

In roses, for the majority of new varieties of which we have always looked across the water, American breeders are continuing the work of developing types entirely distinct from the garden or hybrid tea rose which has been sent to us by the hundreds from abroad. Good American hybrid teas have been developed also. 'Heart's Desire,' the only rose to be given All-America Committee recommendation this year, was developed in California. But it is for extra hardy and vigorous types of bush, shrub and climbing roses, resulting in many instances from crosses from native American species, that the American hybridizers have become most famous. And it is beyond a doubt roses of these types which will be of most practical use for the average American gardener, especially during war conditions when he will have to cut down the time he can devote to ornamental gardening for other activities such as vegetable growing.

Trends in Horticulture.

The one outstanding trend, of course, is the increased interest in vegetable growing. Despite the fact that the Department of Agriculture seemed to look with disfavor upon any great increase in the number of home vegetable gardens throughout the country (other than those on farms), this interest has continued to rise in an irresistible tide. Those individuals and organizations who went through the 'War Garden' movement of the first World War are interested in seeing that such gardening as may be done this time by the amateur shall be so guided and directed that results obtained will be more satisfactory.

1940: Horticulture

As weather is one of the most important factors in horticulture, a review of the year may well begin with a few words concerning this perennial topic. It is an accepted generality that gardeners are never satisfied with the weather. Even when full allowance for this fact has been made, it must be admitted that 1940, like 1939, was exceptionally bad in this respect. A wet, cold, unusually late spring was followed by a short witheringly hot period, only to relapse again into many weeks of unseasonably low temperatures and continued wet, with unusually early frosts. Not until late autumn, when many things had been either killed or ruined, did the weatherman grant a reprieve. However, instead of the extreme drought which continued all through the autumn of the previous year, the soil was well saturated with moisture and in this respect at least showed a marked improvement, and promise of a more normal spring in 1941.

Horticultural Interest Increases.

Unfortunately there are no official statistics by which the degree of interest in horticulture can be measured from season to season. Such indicators as are available, however, all seem to point in one direction — that of a decided increase in amateur horticulture. Without question the forty-hour week has been a big factor in this growth. With many persons having two full days instead of one day or a day and a half to devote to gardening each week it is natural that much more planting should be done. This, coupled with improved economic conditions was reflected in better business for seed houses and nursery firms all along the line.

Three other fairly accurate indicators of horticultural interest are the attendance records at the big spring flower shows, the sale of horticultural books and magazines, and the space devoted to gardening in the newspapers. Attendance at the March Flower Shows, now held in practically every large city from coast to coast, showed decided increases over any preceding year. This increase, so far as the writer knows, held without any exception. The International Flower Show at New York passed the 180,000 mark in attendance. The amount paid for tickets for this event is greater than for any other held throughout the year at Grand Central Palace. The huge Commercial Museum in which the Philadelphia Show is held was, for the first time in the history of the show, so crowded at certain periods that it was difficult to move about.

Among garden books, the leading popular title, although now four years old, broke all previous records for sales. The garden magazines all showed increases in circulation, some of them very substantial. The January 1941 issue of one of the leaders in this field broke all previous records for the amount of horticultural advertising carried in a single issue of one such magazine. Several publishing companies which have never previously issued titles in this field have brought out garden books. The number of newspapers carrying garden departments is steadily increasing. Many of these are now run every week in the year.

The Bulb Situation.

The biggest horticultural controversy during the past twelve months was undoubtedly that surrounding the hardy bulb situation. For years, Holland has been the chief source of supply for the spring-flowering or 'Dutch' bulbs — tulips, hyacinths, crocuses and the 'minor' bulbs, such as grape hyacinths, snowdrops, glory-of-the-snow and so forth. Formerly, too, most of our daffodils came from Holland. Under the plant quarantine act these were shut out for several years and as a result an American daffodil bulb industry, located principally in the Northwest where growing conditions are ideal, has been developed. Due to the invasion of Holland and the resulting British blockade, it was impossible to get bulbs from Holland last fall. While these bulbs can be grown satisfactorily in America it has never been possible for American growers to compete with the Hollanders on a commercial basis, principally because of the lower labor costs in Holland.

Some importers of Dutch bulbs, particularly those who were convinced that Germany would have conquered Britain in time for the Dutch crop to be shipped over late in the season, assiduously spread the propaganda that American and English grown tulips, hyacinths and such other stocks as were available, were worthless. As a result many gardeners did not plant even such bulbs as could have been obtained. The supply available, of course, was only a fraction of that which is normally used. The supply of tulips for instance was estimated at 13,000,000 while normally about 100,000,000 are imported from Holland.

According to such reports as are available, the bulb industry in Holland is being maintained under German domination. Whether these bulbs will be obtainable another year of course nobody knows. In the meantime an impetus has been given to American production. There seems to be little reason to doubt that, if foreign supplies continue to be shut out, American stocks will be developed within a reasonable time; but it will take several years, just as it did with daffodils. Despite widespread and persistent propaganda to the contrary at the beginning of the development of the American daffodil industry, it is now generally conceded that the American product is quite equal in quality to the Holland stocks. In fact among commercial growers who force them for bloom during winter and spring, the American stocks quite generally command a premium over the imported.

Plant Breeding.

American hybridizers have been slowly but surely wrenching leadership in this field from the plant breeders in Europe. One very important group in which this has been particularly true in recent years is that of the hardy lilies. American production, too, is giving us cleaner and more disease-free bulbs. The work of breeding strictly American types of roses continues; America is safely 'on her own' so far as the Queen of Flowers is concerned.

A new type of spring-flowering sweet peas has proved successful and in many localities is making it possible to grow this old favorite again with some assurance of success. Four new colors have been added to this type for introduction in the spring of 1941, and within another year or two a full range of the lovely shades associated with this flower should be available. Among the new annuals for 1941 the marigold Isabelle Firestone is of particular interest because it is the first fertile seeded double hybrid resulting from crossing the African and French types. It is also the reddest large-flowered double marigold.

Among the yearly trials of new introductions carried on by the All America Selections Committee, European novelties were this year conspicuous by their absence. A double purplish colored petunia, called Blue Brocade, from Japan won first place; but from Europe there are almost no novelties, and of the few submitted, seeds or stock is not available for 1941.

The fragrant gladiolus Carrie Jacobs Bond, marks another step forward in the development of this popular flower. Together with one developed a year ago, it marks the beginning of a new race which is sure to become popular.

In the field of science so far as it applies to horticulture, two very large bubbles, given widespread publicity during the last couple of years, have been very definitely punctured. First of these is the marvelous results reported to be obtained from the use of Vitamin B₁ in transplanting and in growing plants. Despite the adverse reports received, almost from the beginning, by experiment station experts and other reliable sources, the public, which is always gullible, was duped into spending hundreds of thousands of dollars for scores of Vitamin B₁ preparations. Several of the concerns which at first made enormous profits out of these preparations, through extravagant claims with no foundation in fact, have gone bankrupt.

The second bubble which has gone much the same way was the theory that by means of the drug colchicine, plant breeding was to be revolutionized almost overnight, with resultant new races of flowers and fruit doubled in size and stamina. Colchicine in the hands of the scientific plant breeder is another tool which is proving of some help, but so far little in the way of practical results has been obtained with it.

Hydroponics, or soilless plant culture, another fad which reached its height two years ago, has continued to decline in importance so far as the amateur horticulturist is concerned. With proper equipment, commercial growers, especially of roses and other cut flowers, are finding a place for it, and its use in this field is constantly being extended.

The hydroponics vogue however has resulted in new knowledge concerning plant foods and the use of balanced preparations applied in liquid form. Both for plants grown in the ordinary way in soil, and for plants grown in gravel, sand or other non-soil mediums, this method of supplying plant nutrients is gradually finding a definite and worthwhile place. To the amateur the use of soil nutrients of this sort for starting seedlings in pure sand has simplified the work and made it much easier to control seedling diseases, particularly the dreaded 'damping off.'

Future Trends.

Without much doubt the most definite shift in horticulture for 1941 will be an increased interest in vegetable growing. There is not yet in sight any hysteria about 'war gardens' and the plowing up of well established front lawns to attempt to grow potatoes and cabbages under entirely unsuitable conditions, but there is decidedly an awakened interest in producing at home more of the vegetable food supply of the family. Entirely aside from any connection with the war this is a basically sound and desirable shift in horticultural interest.

The increase in the amount of planting done in the fall is another marked trend in American horticulture. A very large part of the planting of trees, shrubs, hardy perennials, roses and many other items ordinarily done in spring, can be carried out in the fall with equally good or even better results, leaving more time at the beginning of the growing season for things which can be done only at that time. Lawn making, particularly, is better done in late August or early September than in the spring.

All in all, the year 1941 finds American horticulture in a very sound and promising condition and likely to make decided forward strides during the coming year.

1939: Horticulture

In 1939 horticultural enterprise throughout most of the United States was handicapped by one of the worst seasons in recent history as far as the weather was concerned. A late spring and early summer drought of unusual severity was followed, after a brief period approaching normalcy, by one of the most prolonged droughts which most living gardeners can remember. In fact this late summer and autumn drought extending into the winter and the new year is one of the most serious problems facing horticulture in 1940.

Despite this handicap, 1939, however, was decidedly a year of marked progress. Attendance at the big spring flower shows, now featured in the largest cities from coast to coast, broke all previous records. In New York the International Flower Show, which now commands a bigger paid 'gate' than any other event held in the Grand Central Palace during the year, was viewed by nearly 250,000 persons. The number of seed and nursery catalogues issued exceeded all previous records. At both the New York and the San Francisco World's Fairs, horticulture was given a degree of prominence never before achieved at expositions of this kind.

Other indications of increased interest in horticulture are the facts that two of the leading periodicals in this field reached new all-time highs in circulation as did also the number of garden pages in newspapers and the space devoted to this subject. A leading general-purpose garden book passed in sales the 230,000 mark — something never before achieved in horticultural literature.

One of the outstanding trends in horticulture during the past year has been the continued and revived increase in interest in indoor gardening, which, always a fascinating hobby, has again become quite fashionable. As a result many of grandmother's old favorites for the indoor and window garden have again come into demand and a considerable number of other plants not previously used for this purpose have been 'discovered' and made available.

New Plants.

In the development of new plant material, 1939 has not given us quite so many outstanding improvements as some recent years, but in other ways it has been highly significant. Most important is the continued and increasing success of American hybridizers and seed and plant growers in wresting from Europe the leadership in this highly specialized line. If the war abroad continues, this advance will unquestionably be extended.

Rose.

During recent years American hybridizers have invaded one section of the broad field of plant improvement in which they had previously done little: that of the rose. Such hybridizers as the Brownells of Compton, Rhode Island, and M. H. Horvath of Painsville, Ohio, are giving us new types and hardier varieties, developed especially for American conditions. The late J. H. Nicholas of Newark, N. Y., some of whose creations are still being introduced, worked particularly with the Floribundas, new varieties of which created a sensation at both the New York and San Francisco Fairs during 1939.

The All America Selections Committee (which during recent years has helped to focus attention on outstanding new varieties) during 1939 extended the scope of its activities to include roses.

Sweet Pea.

While receiving comparatively little publicity, perhaps the most important introduction among garden plants for 1939 was a new early flowering type of sweet pea adapted to outdoor culture, which promises to restore the popularity of this lovely flower once so universally grown, but of late years abandoned by many gardeners because of difficulties in the culture of modern types in many sections where fairly cool summers are not experienced. This new type, known as Spring Flowering (to distinguish it from the existing Winter Flowering or Florists' and the Summer Flowering types) has been put out in three colors for 1940, but a wider range will be available next year.

Marigold.

Another new flower of particular interest introduced to the public in 1939 is a marigold called Tetra. This is the first flower to be made generally available resulting from the new technique on the part of the hybridizer of employing colchicine (a drug made from the autumn crocus) in breaking up the normal cell structure and chromosome count in plants. Tetra is an artificially induced break in the marigold resulting in a tetraploid formation in place of the normal diploid formation, producing larger flowers, stockier growth and darker foliage. All of these 'induced' characteristics are transmitted in the seed, the progeny remaining tetraploid.

Gladiolus.

A flower which holds promise of great importance both in itself and for the future is the first really fragrant large flowered gladiolus, developed as a result of seven years' work by Dr. Forman T. MacLean of the Boyce Thompson Institute of Yonkers, N. Y.

Patenting.

In connection with plant breeding it is interesting to note that the patenting of plants, first looked upon as an experiment of doubtful advisability by many professional breeders, has now been pretty generally accepted and many new plants are being protected under this law. Roses so far, are far in the lead.

Scientific Applications and Innovations.

Hydroponics.

In the field of science as applied to horticulture, the hullabaloo of the last couple of years over 'soilless' plant culture and its unlimited possibilities has largely died down. This has been due first to the fact that growing conditions in most sections of the country are quite different from those in southern California, where the growth of plants in water by means of nutrient plant food solutions was first publicized; and, second, to the absurdly exaggerated and dramatic claims concerning it made by uninformed persons. The growing of plants in sterile mediums, such as sand and gravel, by means of feeding with nutrient solutions, proves more practical under most conditions and apparently will be more useful to commercial growers under glass than to the amateur who is always seeking a royal road to success in plant culture.

Vitamin B₁.

Undoubtedly the biggest sensation during 1939 was the highly dramatized announcement of the results allegedly achieved by the application of Vitamin B₁ to growing plants. Highly colorful descriptions of 'daffodils as big as dinner plates' and full grown trees transplanted in the blazing sun without the wilting of a single leaf paved the way for a storm of discussion pro and con which still rages. This story also originated in southern California, which seems to be establishing for itself a horticultural reputation that will leave the uncurbed imaginations of the movie producers in the shade. Scores of reputable scientific investigators from all parts of the country have found little or no evidence to support the claims for the newest 'miracle' in the world of horticulture.

Tear Gas.

Of far more importance to the practical gardener, though hardly a line has appeared about it in the popular horticultural press, is the increasing use being made of the discovery that tear gas can be used for the thorough sterilization of soil, to be employed for garden seeds and growing plants, thus providing a very satisfactory solution to one of the oldest of the gardener's problems.

Colchicine.

Colchicine, already mentioned in connection with the development of the new marigold Tetra, seems destined to play a fairly important part in the field of hybridizing although it is not likely, as at first claimed, to revolutionize completely the work in this field, which is quite as much an art as a science.

Trends in Horticulture.

As to general trends in amateur horticulture, there have been no startling changes. Among the women's garden clubs, which play such a tremendously important part in gardening in America there is a growing feeling, which has I think crystallized a little more during the past year, for what may be termed a 'return to horticulture' — that is, the placing of more emphasis on growing more things and growing them well as compared to the espousing of movements and causes and the art of flower arrangement as something entirely divorced from flower culture. Significant, too, is the growth of the men's garden club movement which is now established on a country-wide basis and shows every sign of vigorous progress.

The European war has to some extent revived the interest in home vegetable growing, this despite the fact that governmental agencies have done nothing to encourage it for fear it may mean increased competition with commercial growers — a theory that is, to say the least, open to debate. See also BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY; BIOLOGY; BOTANY; CHEMISTRY.

1938: Horticulture

Horticulture, meaning literally the cultivation of a garden, has been defined as the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers or ornamental plants. Although primarily an art, it is connected with science at every point, for example, in many branches of botany, particularly plant physiology and genetics; with soil science; with landscape architecture, and even with art itself, as when artistic standards and styles determine the choice and selection of new varieties of flowers or other ornamental plants.

Although one of the most popular and spectacular fields of horticulture is the development of new varieties of plants which are adjudged better from an artistic or from an economic point of view, a trend in just the reverse direction has been evident in late years — that is, a tendency to exalt, or, at least, to seek out and cultivate the wild plants. The wildings, untouched and unmanipulated by man, have a charm of their own. For example, in the last International Flower Show in New York City, an unpretentious collection of wild ferns attracted an amount of attention equal to that of many of the more spectacular exhibits. People are asking for wild plants from all parts of the world. Nurseries throughout the country are offering wild plants and seeds of wild plants for sale. Even firms specializing in wild plants only have sprung up.

Herbs and Herb Gardens.

In line with this is the continually increasing popularity of herbs and herb gardens. During the past few years their history has been somewhat parallel to that of rock gardens. Rock gardens were known in Europe about 100 years ago, but the rock-garden craze in America reached its high point perhaps ten or fifteen years ago. That rock gardens have come to stay as a permanent feature of American horticulture there can be no question; but during the past half dozen years their popularity has waned somewhat. Likewise with herb gardens: although their history goes back to the Old Roman Gardens, or even earlier, and comes down to us through the monastic gardens of the Middle Ages, the Elizabethan gardens of the Renaissance, and the herb gardens of early colonial times, it is only within the last few years that they have become a fad, so to speak, in America. By 'herbs' is understood not necessarily plants without a woody structure (the strict botanical definition) but those plants used in cooking (culinary herbs) and those used in medicine (medicinal herbs). In the construction of these herb gardens the 'knots' or symmetrical patterns which were prominent features of the European gardens of the sixteenth century are sometimes used.

A Bulletin of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden says: 'The term `knot' is perhaps confusing, because to the modern mind a `knot' indicates a loop tightly drawn together. But as applied to these old gardens it is an arrangement of lines crossing and re-crossing. The intricate patterns of the lines were formed either of nonliving materials, including wood, lead, tile, brick, and sheep shanks; or of interlacing ribbons of low-growing plants or of plants which could be kept low by shearing. Favorite living subjects included: germander, hyssop, marjoram, savory, thyme, thrift, lavender, lavender-cotton, juniper, yew, and box.' Gervaise Markham, the author of 'The English Husbandman' (1613), names germander as 'the most principal best,' but Parkinson finds fault with it and prefers box.

Flower Arrangement.

The various ways in which flowers may be arranged in bouquets, in order to create the most artistic effects, continue to form a subject of great interest. A vast amount of literature, dealing with this matter, has been published.

New Forms in 1938.

As to new plants and varieties introduced during the year, it is of course impossible to even name all or to evaluate the whole field with any considerable degree of fairness: we can only name a few of the introductions which are unquestionably outstanding.

Roses.

The long-desired yellow rose may perhaps be the new Alice Harding, an offspring of the free-blooming Mrs. Pierre S. Dupont. The new rose, Golden State, is to be the official rose of the San Francisco World's Fair in 1939. It was awarded the gold medal at Bagatelle in 1937, also a gold medal at the International Rose Test Gardens at Portland, Ore., the American Rose Society's certificate, and the grand gold medal for the most beautiful rose of France. At the annual meeting of the American Rose Society, the Fuerstenberg prize, awarded each year for the best American rose suited to the American climate, was voted to Mrs. J. H. Nicolas for the late Dr. Nicolas' yellow rose, Eclipse.

Iris.

A large number of new Iris have been introduced, of the following color shades and types; whites, blues, purples, yellows, pinks, reds, blends, plicatas, and coppers. The new Iris, Copper Lustre, originated by Dr. John H. Kirkland, received the Dykes medal for 1938.

Gladiolus.

There are said to be now about 7,000 varieties of gladiolus in the trade. On the basis of popularity, Picardy, the salmon-pink gladiolus, continues to rate first, by a wide margin, as in the past two or three years. Breeding work looking toward the development of forms with fragrance, a quality hitherto generally lacking, is being carefully carried on by Dr. Forman T. McLean of the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, at Yonkers, N. Y.

All-America Selections of Annuals.

All-America selections of best introductions of annuals during 1938 are: — Morning Glory, Scarlett O'Hara, gold medal: Annual Hollyhock, Indian Spring: Petunia, Hollywood Star; Phlox drummondi, Salmon Glory; Light Blue Aster, Early Giant — all silver medals: Cynoglossum, Firmament; Petunia, Velvet Ball; Antirrhinum, Guinea Gold; Verbena, Blue Sentinel; Marigold, Early Sunshine; Petunia, Ladybird — all bronze medals.

Raspberries.

Two new red raspberries, the Marcy and the Taylor, are recommended by the New York State Experiment Station at Geneva.

Apples.

Twenty new varieties of apples and two new crab apples are on the list of recommended fruits published by the New York State Fruit Testing Association, in its 1937-38 catalogue. Promising apples of the McIntosh type are the Kendall, which may replace the Baldwin, the Early McIntosh, Macoun, Milton, Ogden, Sweet McIntosh, and two Canadian varieties, Lobo and Melba. Among the new Delicious types are Medina, Newfane, Orleans, and Sweet Delicious. Other new varieties included are Carlton, Crimson Beauty, Lodi, Red Duchess, Red Gravenstein, Red Sauce, Red Spy, and Dolgo and Young America, the last two being crab apples.

Damage from the Hurricane.

Tremendous damage to plant life, especially to trees and shrubs, resulted from the devastating hurricane of Sept. 18, 1938. Coming up along the Atlantic coast, the center of the storm struck eastern Long Island, and was shouldered up inland by regions of high atmospheric pressure on each side, moving across Rhode Island and Massachusetts to the northward, roughly along the line of the Connecticut River, to the Province of Quebec northeast of Montreal, where, presumably, it was dissipated. Farmers suffered heavily, especially in the orchard and tobacco areas.