1941: Anthropology

Anthropological investigations during 1941 were few in number due to existing world conditions.

The Sterkfontein Paranchropus.

In South Africa, however, at Sterkfontein, Dr. Robert Broom of the Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, has discovered a fossilized lower jaw of a child about four years old. This belongs to the species named Paranthropus. It has been possible to compare this new discovery with the fragmentary jaw of a somewhat older Australopithecus child in the same museum. The molars of this Paranthropus jaw are described as markedly human, with five cusps, and a tiny extra cusp, found on other human molars. Dr. Broom believes that these teeth have a nearer resemblance to human teeth of the same developmental stage than do similar teeth in young apes. Also according to Dr. Broom, the man-like ape known as Plesianthropus transvaalensis had hands like those of a human. Broom's conclusions are based on a study of a wrist bone of one of these man-like apes found at the Sterkfontein Cave. A comparison of this wrist bone with that of gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, as well as with modern Bushmen, leads him to the opinion that this latest fossil find definitely resembles the human form, more specifically that of the Bushmen, and the presumption follows that the function is similar. This announcement has stirred up considerable discussion in England. Sir Arthur Keith believes that the bone not only resembles, but is a human bone, and that specifically it is so like Bushmen and so unlike other races, that it probably represents a prehistoric Bushman. If this latter opinion is not accepted, then we must believe with Dr. Broom that the Sterkfontein ape had a human hand very much like that of a Bushwoman.

Folsom Man.

The latest evidence for the existence of Folsom Man in America is now reported by Dr. D. I. Bushnell, Jr., of the United States National Museum, a long distance from the hitherto known sites of Folsom finds. A campsite on the Skyline Drive of Shenandoah National Park in Virginia, yielded two dart points of the Folsom type. Other isolated finds of this style of point have been found in the east, but thus far no correlation has been made with the geological strata. The debris at this site contained finished and unfinished stone tools, many with flaking resembling that on Folsom points. In addition there were found here both projectile points and potsherds similar to those of the so-called Round Grave people of Kentucky and Tennessee, thus far the oldest known inhabitants of this area. Further study of this site, particularly its geological setting, may make it possible to correlate these Folsom points chronologically with the Western finds.

See also ARCHAEOLOGY.

1940: Anthropology

Worldwide upheavals notwithstanding, the accumulation of anthropological knowledge advanced through the year, giving continued evidence of man's perennial interest in man, his evolution, his history, and his ethnology.

Life Span of Early Man.

A subject which always arouses interest is man's life span. Doctor Franz Weidenreich of Peiping Union Medical College concludes, from a re-examination of 38 known skulls of Sinanthropus (Peking Man) and seven skulls of more recent Old Stone Age people, all found in different levels of the Choukoutien Caves in China, that for most of these men, death was not only early in life, but sudden and violent. Most of the skulls had either been shattered by clubs or pierced by some pointed stone implement. Fifteen of the skulls were of children under fourteen years old; three were less than thirty; three were between forty and fifty, and one was over fifty. We may add that because of their condition it was not always possible to classify all the adult skulls by age.

Appearance and Characteristics of Early Man.

A re-examination of the dentition of the fossil ape skulls and teeth (Australopithecus) found in South Africa by Doctor Robert Broom of the Transvaal Museum in 1936 was made by Doctors Milo Hellman and William K. Gregory. Their study confirms Broom's conclusion that the canine teeth of these apes are almost human; the molar and the lower teeth combine both human and ape-like features. As reconstructed, the upper dental arch appears markedly human in form. These investigators maintain that these Australopithecus skulls are probably primitive forms which persisted in South Africa after man himself had emerged, perhaps in some other part of the world.

Doctor Weidenreich, in pursuing these inquiries further, reports that the evolution of the special character of the human physical type, is, according to his most recent studies, strictly orthogenic, and does not alter the basic pattern which man shares with the anthropoids. He contends that man's cerebral development is primarily responsible for all the changes that have taken place in the human skull. Also, that the unusual enlargement of the brain is responsible not only for the changes in the skull itself, but for the changes in accessory skull structure, for example, the reduction in the size of the face and teeth, in contrast to those characters in fossil and living great apes. He finds also comparable changes occurring in dogs — small dogs have larger skulls in proportion to their bodies than do large dogs. With a larger skull goes the reduction in size of face and development of the teeth. He also finds similar relations and differences in other mammalian groups.

A variety of primitive surgical techniques was known and practiced by prehistoric and living primitive peoples the world over. Trephining, one of the most delicate of these techniques, is known to have been frequently practiced among the Inca in prehistoric Peru, as well as in several scattered areas in aboriginal North America. It has not hitherto been reported in prehistoric Eastern United States. Recently, however, Mrs. Alice L. Ferguson has unearthed a skull on the Maryland side of the Potomac River opposite Mt. Vernon. This skull has a triangular hole with sharp edges beveled inward where the bone had begun a new growth and healed. It is definitely pronounced as having been trephined by Doctor T. D. Stewart of the United States National Museum.

Possible evidence of human sacrifice is reported from Virginia where archaeologists have recently found charred human bones. According to some old and not too well authenticated accounts, these human sacrifices were made in the course of ceremonies for controlling the weather. These accounts state that during these ceremonies a fire circle was made and two or three young children were sacrificed to the rain god. However, Doctor T. D. Stewart of the United States National Museum offers another explanation based on bundles of human bones, both burned and unburned, which he has unearthed in burials along the York River, Virginia. He believes that when the skeletons were collected for secondary burial in grave pits, they were then probably burned ceremonially.

New Evidence of Primitive Man in America.

Geographically rather widely scattered evidence continues to accumulate on the subject of the antiquity of man in America. Such new evidence that man lived in North America during the time of mastodons and extinct American horses was reported by Doctor E. H. Sellards of the University of Texas. Excavating on the banks of Blanco Creek in Bee County, Texas, he found spear heads, scrapers, and worked flints associated with bones of extinct mammals at a level about fifteen feet below the present land surface. However, digging at greater depths in beds of Pliocene age, which preceded the great Ice Ages, he found only bones of extinct camels, horses, rhinoceroses, and deer, together with mastodon, but no evidence of the handiwork of man.

Recent field work in the Northern Basin region of South Central Oregon, under the direction of L. S. Cressman of the University of Oregon, points to the presence of early man in this area, associated with genera considered to be more characteristic of the Pleistocene than the Recent period. Evidence of such occupation was found at considerable depth, in caves in the Alvord Valley, associated with the gravel of the exposed high beach of this Pleistocene Lake. Also under Doctor Cressman's leadership a group of twelve studied the association of artifacts with extinct fauna in the lower Klamath Lake region of southern Oregon and northern California. For a short period this group was assisted by Ernest Antevs of Globe, Arizona, and other geologists. Here were found two and possibly three culture horizons. If it should be demonstrated finally that the latter is correct, it should be noted that the first horizon is represented by association of artifacts and extinct fauna; the second has no extinct fauna, and a different percentage distribution of types of projectile points; the third horizon, the most recent, has characteristic artifacts of the historic culture of the region. The remains of the first two culture horizons are found under old peat formations of the lake level of the Little Pluvial period, which began about four thousand years ago, now represented by beaches about eight feet above the present lake level. The most recent occupation is probably about two thousand years old. If, however, after further study, it is determined that only two horizons are demonstrable, the first would consist of two phases corresponding to the first two horizons described above. Chester Stock of the California Institute of Technology and Henry P. Hansen of the Oregon State College have made a correlated study of the fossil fauna in the peat beds in the search for evidence of climatological changes, such as may be shown by pollen profiles.

Folsom Man in the United States.

The story of the famous Folsom Man of the Ice Age who lived some 25,000 years ago and is known thus far only by the tools he has left buried in his camp sites, continues to unfold. An apparently new and hitherto unreported site of his activities has been discovered some twenty miles southeast of Tucumcari, New Mexico, by Doctor Frank C. Hibben, who reports finding the typical projectile points of this old culture. He also reports the discovery in a cave in the Sandia Mountains in New Mexico, another Folsom, or possibly pre-Folsom deposit. In the Sandia Cave he found a distinctive type of stone point, differing from the Folsom type, and possibly older. No human remains have been found, as yet, so like Folsom Man, Sandia Man himself must remain a mystery for the present.

Doctor F. H. H. Roberts has continued his search at the best known and most thoroughly studied Folsom camp site, known as the Lindenmeier Site in northeastern Colorado, for the burial grounds of Folsom Man himself. He has not yet succeeded in this search, but recently reported finding a stratified corner at this camp and workshop which, upon excavation, reveals evidence of repeated occupation of the site. Through an analysis of these gradually accumulated culture bearing and barren layers he has been able to prove that Folsom Man was the first and oldest occupant of this site. These Folsom hunters returned repeatedly, each time leaving some of their beautifully made stone dart points. Newly discovered are needles with eyes, proving, according to Doctor Roberts, that Folsom Man used needles with eyes during the same period when they were used by European Cave Dwellers. The Folsom occupation was followed, after a lapse of a few centuries, marked by a sterile layer, by another people who, for a short time, made a sort of degenerate Folsom point, and who may possibly have been actual descendants of Folsom Man, but who nevertheless presumably had some contact with his culture. This occupation was followed by another unoccupied period. Finally, the excavations revealed a quite different type of dart point, the work of a third occupation by a hunting people. This stratified culture sequence will enable archaeologists to establish the relative age of similar dart points found in other places.

Study of Extinct Animals.

In an attempt to determine man's association with extinct mammals. Richard McCormick Adams of the Archaeological Laboratory of the Academy of Natural Sciences of St. Louis investigated the Kimmswick bone bed in Missouri to obtain a collection of Pleistocene and Post-Pleistocene fauna, particularly to determine any possible association of man or his culture during those periods.

Among ethnological studies made during the past year among many scattered peoples the following may be mentioned. Doctor Froelich Rainey of the University of Alaska wintered with the Eskimo of Point Hope, Alaska, to study the impact of white civilization on the culture of this group; Doctor Julian H. Stewart of the Bureau of American Ethnology worked with the Carrier Indians of Canada to investigate the culture traits borrowed from the Indians of the Pacific Coast by these people; Homer G. Barnett of the Museum of Natural History of the University of Oregon studied the processes of acculturation among the Tsimshian Indians; Goesta Moberg headed a joint expedition of the Smithsonian Institution and the Royal Ethnographical Museum to French and Dutch Guiana to study the Indians living in the unexplored jungles of those countries.

1939: Anthropology

Prehistoric Man in Africa.

In 1935 Doctor F. Kohl-Larsen discovered fragments of two skulls in the gravels at the northeast end of Lake Eyassi, Tanganyika Territory, Africa, in association with fossilized bones of antelopes, pigs, and hyenas resembling types of animals now living in that area. The two hundred fragments of the skulls have been painstakingly assembled by Doctor Hans Weinert of Kiel, Germany, so that there are now available for study the skull cap of one individual and part of the face of another. Though critical study of these East African finds is still far from completion, their closest resemblance appears to be to Pithecanthropus erectus, the famous Java ape man. These remains have been tentatively dated as 100,000 years ago.

Doctor Robert Broom of the Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, has continued his study of the human-like ape remains found in South Africa. He believes the Australopithecus skulls to be the most definitely ape-like, except for their teeth, which show a closer similarity to those of man than of the gorilla or chimpanzee, and therefore that they are not actual ancestors of man, but rather, survivors of a possible ape-like ancestral stock that existed before Ice Age times.

The distal end of a humerus, the proximal end of an ulna, and the distal phalanx of a toe of Paranthropus robustus, as well as the distal end of a femur of Plesianthropus were excavated in the Pleistocene bone breccia of Kromdrai, near Krugersdorp, South Africa, under the direction of Doctor Broom, thus adding not only to the known skeletal parts of this ape-man, but according to Doctor Broom giving strong indications that this early type of ape-man walked erect, and making a distinct departure from previous assumptions as to posture of this species.

Professor Raymond Dart of Witwatersrand University (South Africa), the discoverer of the controversial Taungs skull (Australopithecus africanus) states that a high culture existed in the present habitat of the Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa in the Late Stone Age prior to their advent in that part of Africa. Skeletons associated with the Mapungobwa finds appear to indicate that the civilization centering here was associated with a race said to be intermediate between, and possibly a hybrid of, Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal types, which as known in Europe, are distinct races.

Neanderthaloid Findings.

Finds of Neanderthaloid skulls and skeletons continue to be reported from widely separated areas. Digging in a cave at Mount Circeo on the Tyrrhenian sea, 50 miles south of Rome, Italy, Alberto Carlo Blanc uncovered an almost perfectly preserved Neanderthal skull, perfect except for a fracture in the right temporal region. It is the third of this type found in Italy. The two skulls previously reported were found in 1929 and 1935 in the Sacopastore region, near Rome, but in not nearly so well preserved a condition as the present find. No other human bones were found here, but the skull was accompanied by fossilized bones of elephants, rhinoceri, and giant horses, all fractured, thus giving some evidence of the mode of life of Neanderthal man. Professor Sergio Sergi, of the Institute of Anthropology at the Royal University of Rome, who has studied this skull in detail believes it to be 70,000 to 80,000 years old. He concludes also that Neanderthal man walked almost as erect as modern man and not with head thrust forward as had hitherto been assumed.

Another Neanderthal skeleton is reported to have been found in a cave in Middle Asia by A. P. Okladnikoff of the Anthropological Institute of Moscow University and the Leningrad Institute of Anthropology. The bones of the skeleton were badly shattered, but the jaw and teeth of the skull, itself crushed at the back, were almost complete.

Chokoutien Site in China.

The famous Chokoutien site near Peking, China, the home of ancient Peking man (Sinanthropus) previously reported, now proves also to have yielded additional more modern type skeletons which have been studied by Doctor Franz Weidenreich and Doctor W. C. Pei, the leaders in research at this site. In the portion of the site known as the upper cave were found the remains of a relatively advanced culture suggesting a resemblance to the Late or Upper Paleolithic in Europe, thus implying an age of 100,000 to 200,000 years. These cultural remains were accompanied by skeletons of bear, hyena, and ostrich, long extinct forms, as well as tiger and leopard which long since disappeared from this part of Asia. The three human skulls in condition good enough for detailed study indicate that they probably belong to three different racial groups. Of the two female skulls studied, one bears close resemblance to the skulls of modern Melanesians, with frontal deformation; the second to Eskimo skulls. The brain case of the male skull is in some respects very primitive, almost in the Neanderthaloid stage, but in other features is reminiscent of Upper Paleolithic Man. The face, is similar to, though not identical with, recent Mongolians. From this evidence it would seem that racial mixture is no product of modern times, but has its roots in extreme antiquity. It should be noted also that though Mongolian types resembling the modern population of North China were not found in the upper cave, it does not necessarily mean that they were nonexistent during that period. It has been suggested that the population represented in the upper cave may have been a migrating group. Historic and prehistoric American Indian skulls resembling Melanesian, Eskimo, or more primitive types have been reported from time to time in America, so that it would appear from the present finds at Chokoutien that long before migrations from Asia to America are assumed to have taken place, types similar to those composing the native American population were living permanently, or at least moving around in Eastern Asia.

Folsom Man in United States.

In America, the search for additional evidence of Folsom Man continues. Near Fort Collins, Colorado, Doctor Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., continued excavation at a camp site, uncovering a variety of tools and weapons, and the first known decorated objects from any Folsom site, two decorated beads. This earliest American. Folsom Man, may have lived contemporaneously with Old World Cro-Magnon Man, or some 25,000 years ago. This tentative date was assigned recently by Doctors Kirk Bryan and Louis L. Ray of Harvard University on the basis of studies made at the Folsom camp site, known as the Lindenmeier site, in northeastern Colorado. Many of the stone points, identified as typically Folsom were found in an earth stratum above the floor of an ancient valley which is traceable to a terrace on a local stream. The terrace has been dated as of the late Ice Age. The dating is based on the assumed correlation between this late Ice Age stage with the Mankato of the Middle West and the Pomeranian of Europe. From this it appears that the culture-bearing layer of the Lindenmeier site was developed at the end of the glacial advance, or 25,000 years ago.

An attempt has been made to adapt the method of dating ruins by analysis of tree rings, so successfully carried out in America, specifically in Southwestern United States, to Viking ruins in Southern Norway. E. de Geer, who has been carrying on this work, reports, that, on the basis of a study of the remaining timbers in a wooden burial chamber in a Viking mound, it was constructed in 931 ad. A Swedish fort in Gotland was found by the same method to have been built in 5 ad. See also ARCHAEOLOGY.

1938: Anthropology

Old World Discoveries.

Several significant new discoveries bearing on the antiquity of man were made late in 1937 and in 1938. Doctor Robert Broom, well known for his palaeontological studies in South Africa, reported the discovery, in a limestone deposit near the top of a hill near Kromdraai, South Africa, of the remains of a new anthropoid, part of the skull of a large ape, in size between that of a male chimpanzee and of a female gorilla. These fossil remains, the palate, most of the teeth, the left side of the lower part of the skull, and most of the right side of the lower jaw, appear to be more closely related to the human form than any previously discovered. Though scientists admit their markedly human character, the small size of the skull actually indicates a form preceding the human. The limestone deposit in which this find was made, belongs, according to Broom, to the Middle Pleistocene period, or is from two to three hundred thousand years old. Thus, with this new find, we have now an interesting series of South African finds: the Taungs skull (Australopithecus africanus), discovered by Professor Raymond Dart in 1925, has been assigned to an earlier geological period, the Lower Pleistocene, while the Sterkfontein skull, previously unearthed in a cave two miles from the latest find by Doctor Broom, belongs to the Upper Pleistocene. Doctor Broom proposes the name Paranthropas robustus for these fossil remains.

From war-torn China, Franz Weidenreich of Peiping Union Medical College announced the discovery by W. C. Pei, who excavated at the now famous site at Choukoutien in 1936-1937, two fragment of female thigh bones belonging to the species designated as Peking Man. These have been determined to be definitely human, indicating by their form that they belonged to individuals of erect posture. These bones were fossilized and, in addition, bore signs of having been burned, leading some students to the assumption that this is incontrovertible evidence that Peking Man practised cannibalism.

Late in 1937, G. H. R. von Koenigswald of the Geological Survey of Holland, but working under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, reported the discovery, in a gravel bed, of the fragments of a new fossil skull from Java which, upon detailed examination and study, was classified as another example of Pithecanthropus erectus. Doctor von Koenigswald has dated this definitely human fossil as Middle Pleistocene, or the middle of the Ice Age, or some half million years old. This latest discovery led to a reconsideration of the entire problem. Scientists are now definitely of the opinion that the so-called ape man actually belongs to the human family and that these fossil remains may represent the most primitive remains now known. The known examples of Pithecanthropus erectus consist of three skulls, the famous original find by Dr. Eugene Dubois, excavated near Trinil in 1891, the new skull found by Dr. von Koenigswald, and a child's skull discovered in 1936.

Additional excavations in Java have uncovered the remains of several skulls resembling the Neanderthal skulls of Europe and the Near East. These are considered by Doctor von Koenigswald as approximately contemporaneous with the more primitive Pithecanthropus.

New World Finds.

In America, the evidence for and against the antiquity of man in the western world continues to hold the attention of many anthropologists. During 1938 there were no outstandingly important new finds, but the persistent spade work of the archaeologist has added a few new items which it is hoped will help in the constructive interpretation of available new evidence.

Continuing the work of previous years at known sites of Folsom culture in Colorado, Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., found a mammoth tusk, adding to the previously identified extinct fauna (bison, muskox, and camel), known to have been contemporaneous with Folsom man, whose bones, however, remain as elusive, as ever. To date, only the weapons and tools he used and the animals he presumedly killed with them are known.

In Texas, at a site near Abilene, Cyrus N. Ray of Abilene and Professor Kirk Bryan of Harvard University have found an unusual stone point, distinctly differing from the typical Folsom, in association with the bones of a mammoth. They have called this Folsom variant, 'Folsomoid.' This association with the mammoth parallels that of similar finds in New Mexico and other places like the famous Lindemeier site. The geological conditions at this locality where an alluvial cap on bed rock was eroded by a stream leads the finders to conclude that the Folsomoid point is as old as the mammoth bone bearing alluvium which also contains the remains of additional unidentified animals.

Dr. George F. Kay of the University of Iowa, in cooperation with Dr. Morris K. Leighton of the Geological Survey of Illinois, has reviewed the geological setting in which the much disputed skeleton of Minnesota Man (actually the skeleton of a female) was found about seven years ago. On the basis of their examination of the sands and gravels in which the skeleton was found, they conclude that the bones are relatively old — some 18,000 to 20,000 years.

In Lake County, California, M. R. Harrington, leading a joint expedition of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Southwest Museum, found strong evidence of the existence of two prehistoric populations preceding the Folsom culture. On the surface of the site examined were implements of the Folsom type, with which the mammoth and the giant bison were killed. Folsom culture has been estimated as having flourished 7,000 to 12,000 years ago. Definitely below these were found spear heads and other implements of a different type, similar to those found at Lake Mohave. Thus, these Mohave type implements are assumed here to be older than Folsom. That there may have been two cultures preceding Folsom is suggested by Harrington who reports finding an additional type of spearhead which he calls the Lake Borax type, at about the same level as the Lake Mohave tools; but below these relics lay still older weapons, crude and coarse stone implements (scrapers and handaxes, used without hafting). These latter he estimated to be datable at approximately 13,000 bc.

Junius Bird of the American Museum of Natural History, working for two years in the region around the Straits of Magellan, discovered five periods of habitation, basing his conclusions on the excavation of caves in that area; the first, a group of horse-hunting, sloth-eating people; the most recent, a group of hunters who used arrowheads like those used by the still existing Ona tribe. Exact dating is, of course, impossible, but on the basis of the rate of dust accumulation in the caves, Mr. Bird estimates that the end of the first period, the sloth-eating culture, occurred between 5,400 and 3,000 years ago.

Archaeological Activity.

Archaeological exploration and research both in the United States and Canada, in Middle America and South America is carried on by innumerable individuals and institutions so that only a few of the major activities can be reported here. In the United States, the chief centers of activity are in the Southwestern States. Here, as in other parts of the country, archaeological activity has been stimulated by Government support through the Works Progress Administration. The University of Arizona, for example, has sponsored a statewide WPA archaeological project, jointly financed by the Government and the state which includes excavation near Globe, a stratigraphical survey at Phoenix, and various museum projects at Globe, Phoenix, and Flag-staff.

Under the direction of J. O. Brew of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, a third excavation season was spent at Awatovi on the Hopi Reservation, Northern Arizona. Excavations were concentrated on those portions of the site which would yield evidence of the last prehistoric and early historic periods. E. B. Renand made a survey of petroglyphs in north-central New Mexico, studying more than twenty prehistoric sites.

Directed by Paul S. Martin of the Field Museum in Chicago, excavations were continued at a Basket Maker site on the south rim of Cahone Canyon, Colorado, a large site containing slab-lined, aboveground granaries, pit houses, and dwellings with walls built of posts.

In North Dakota. Professor Duncan Strong of Columbia University, in cooperation with the North Dakota Historical Society, excavated ruins of ancient villages of the Mandan and Hidatsa on the Upper Missouri.

In Oklahoma where there appears to have been a flourishing center of the Mound culture, excavations at the now famous Spiro Mound, in collaboration of the WPA and the University of Oklahoma under the direction of Dr. Forrest E. Clements, reveal a culture much like that of the Hopewell mounds in Ohio. The most significant finds, however, are those of engraved shells with designs strikingly like those well known in the Mexican Mayan area, opening up suggestive speculations as to the connections of Mound culture with the cultures of the more southern areas.

The establishment of a lithic laboratory at the Ohio State Museum at Columbus, Ohio, was announced early in the year by its director, H. C. Shetrone. This will be yet another addition to the technological aids, like the microscopic analysis of potsherds, to which the archaeologist may turn for assistance in the solution of his problems. The laboratory in question will have as its objective the study of stone working as exemplified by worked flints from all parts of Eastern United States in an attempt to recover not only the prehistoric technique, but the variety and types of raw materials, so that ultimately it may be possible to determine regional variations in forms, materials, and techniques.

In the Middle American field, the several institutions heretofore working there have continued as in years past (the Mexican Government, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the University of Pennsylvania, the American Museum of Natural History). The American Museum extended its studies from the Valley of Mexico and has made preliminary explorations and reconnaissance in Northern Mexico with a view to concentrating upon the problems in that area.

In Peru, Dr. W. C. Bennett, excavating for the American Museum of Natural History near Huaras, reports several hitherto unknown types of architecture, the new features being underground rooms.

Donald Collier, working in Peru under the auspices of the Institute for Andean Research, reports the discovery of a stone temple, with a facade of monoliths at Casma, on the coast between Lima and Trujillo. Previously, adobe temples only had been known from this coastal area. The temple, the adjacent cemetery, and the various accompanying cultural objects are dated approximately between 600 and 900 ad, on the basis of the pottery found with the burials.