1942: Belgium

Conditions under the Nazis.

Conditions in Belgium in 1942 were described by the Swedish Committee for the Relief of Belgian Children as bad as, if not worse than, those existing in Greece. Mortality among children was appalling the committee announced. More than two million Belgians did not see a potato during the winter of 1941-42. The people are keeping alive by eating bread and turnips. By the fall of 1942 the meat ration had been reduced to approximately one-half ounce per day. The food problem became more acute as Allied bombing attacks on Cologne and other western German cities increased in intensity. Many German civilians who were evacuated from these cities entered Belgium.

Early in the year a credit of 3,000,000 Swiss francs was granted by a banking consortium so that foodstuffs might be purchased in Hungary and Rumania for the starving Belgian population. The agreement was negotiated by a Belgian Commission, the banking consortium, German officials, and the Belgian Government-in-Exile. The loan is amortizable over a maximum period of fifteen years by Belgian surpluses from the export of linen. This arrangement has not, however, taken care of the hunger of the Belgian population.

The Germans have used the hunger and misery of the Belgian people as a political weapon. Joachim von Ribbentrop, the German Foreign Minister, in a note to King Leopold of the Belgians 'invited' him at his 'earliest convenience' to establish a collaborationist government with Leon Degrelle, head of the Belgian Rexist Party, and the Belgian Quisling, at its head. The note contained pointed references to the serious food situation in Belgium and suggested that this situation could not be improved without 'manifestations of loyal cooperation inside the country.' In a drive to conscript Belgian workers to work in war factories in Germany the Germans have insisted that food supplies for Belgium will depend on the manpower which Belgium provides in exchange for the food.

Education of Youth.

During the German occupation of Belgium in 1914-18, the Germans followed a policy of creating antagonism between the Flemish-speaking and French-speaking Belgians. The Nazis are now following the same policy of 'divide and rule.' In an attempt to Germanize the Belgians, they are spreading the study and teaching of Flemish in the schools. The Germans issued an order to municipal authorities and to boards of elementary schools to transfer all French-speaking children from French to Flemish classes. It was reported that almost seven thousand children entered over three hundred newly established classes. But many parents took their children out of communal schools and sent them to independent French establishments. The Germans have attempted to change the entire Belgian educational system. But teachers who are willing to carry out the wishes of the Germans have been so scarce that the Germans have been forced to legalize diplomas granted during the German occupation of 1914-18.

A training school for political soldiers and leaders has been opened at Vilvorde where after six years training the student may enter a university. Hours usually devoted to intellectual education have been shortened and the main emphasis placed on sport and physical training.

In spite of these German efforts to win over sections of the youth, hostility to the German invaders has increased among the Belgians. The University of Brussels was closed by order of the German Military Command because of the defiant attitude of the professors. The Germans have taken over the buildings and scientific laboratories and use them for war purposes. The attitude of the Catholic Church toward the Nazi forces of occupation was one of open opposition. Many Catholic schools were closed rather than be put under the influence of pro-Nazi professors. Cardinal van Roey stated: 'If Germany desires, after the peace is made, to keep contact with our country, she should not make these contacts impossible in advance by measures which deeply wound the masses.'

Sabotage and Reprisals.

Acts of resistance to the German invaders and sabotage of the German war effort increased among all sections of the population. In the month of April alone there were 125 railway accidents. Belgian miners have taken dynamite from their mines and used it to blow up factories and houses of pro-Nazi workers. Power stations have been blasted and military supply depots fired. Extensive fires have occurred in coal mines, some of them started with bottles of inflammable liquids. The German-controlled gas and explosives factory at Tessenderloo was completely destroyed in an explosion which killed 250 persons and injured over 1,000 more. In May bombs were thrown at the Luftwaffe headquarters in Brussels. In July many Belgian Quislings were killed.

Reprisals on the part of the Germans have increased rather than diminished Belgian resistance. According to the Belgian Government in Exile Belgians are being executed at a rate of twenty to twenty-five daily. Most of these executions have taken place as a result of Nazi efforts to crush the White Brigade, a Belgian underground group, organized to hinder the German war effort while preparing to take part in the fighting when the Allies invade the continent. M. Albert de Vleeschauwer, Belgian Minister of Colonies, stated, while in the United States, on his way to the Belgian Congo, that despite the fact that hostages are being put to death every week that fifty-two small secret newspapers are still being published in Belgium. The Belgian Prime Minister, M. Pierlot, also in the United States on his way to the Belgian Congo, stated that more civilians have already been shot in Belgium during the present occupation than during the four years of German occupation from 1914-18.

Forced Labor.

One of the greatest tragedies of the German occupation to the Belgians is the fact that they are forced to work directly or indirectly for the German war industry. Official statistics showed that over 1,000,000 workers or approximately 60 per cent of total Belgian labor was so engaged. The Nazi labor dictator, Sauckel, issued a decree compelling all men between the ages of 18 and 50 and all unmarried women between 21 and 35 to undertake any kind of work in Belgian or German territory. It is estimated that there are already over two hundred thousand Belgians working in Germany.

Government in Exile.

During 1942 three new members, MM. Hoste, Rolin and Jaassart were added to the Belgian Government with the title of Secretaries of State. MM. Antoine Delfosse, August de Schrijver and August Balthazar, who at the time of the German invasion were respectively Ministers for Communications, Economic Affairs, and Labor arrived in London to join the Belgian Government-in-Exile. M. Delfosse was appointed Minister of Justice in the Cabinet in London and also given charge of the Information Department. M. de Schrijver was entrusted with an economic mission in the United States and M. Balthazar was given a mission in connection with the International Labor Organization in Montreal. In the fall of 1942 M. Pierlot announced that he was taking over the portfolio of National Defense, formerly held by M. Gutt who remained Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs.

King Leopold.

King Leopold of the Belgians continued to consider himself a prisoner of war and has declined to cooperate with the Nazis in any way. M. Pierlot, who so bitterly denounced King Leopold's surrender of the Belgian armies to the Germans, showed a reconciled attitude toward the Sovereign during his stay in the United States. Referring to the King's marriage to a commoner in September 1941 as a private affair, M. Pierlot remarked that he did not think that this would prevent King Leopold from returning to his royal functions after the war. Respect for King Leopold is very strong among the Belgians and the people place their hope in him to create, after the end of the war, a new order, based on national good will and an equitable division of Walloon and Flemish influence.

1941: Belgium

Under the Nazi Yoke.

The process of Nazification in Belgium in 1941 proceeded more slowly than in most of the other countries occupied by the Nazis. Evidently the Germans still hoped that they might persuade King Leopold to become the head of a puppet Belgian State under German control. But the King of the Belgians persisted in regarding himself purely as a prisoner of war and has refused to aid the Nazi forces of occupation in their designs.

In the summer of 1941 it was reported that the Germans had propounded a scheme whereby King Leopold would resume active leadership of his country with an all-Belgian ministry composed of Rexists (Belgian Fascists) and Flemish Nationalists. The Rexists and Flemish Nationalists to be included in the ministry were all pro-Nazi. According to prominent Belgians in London when these proposals were outlined to King Leopold by the Rexist leader, Leon Degrelle (the Belgian Quisling), the King immediately interrupted by declaring, 'the audience which has been imposed upon me has ended.'

King Leopold's steadfast refusal to participate in Hitler's 'New Order' in Europe has heartened the Belgian people, strengthened their will to resist the Nazi invaders and has caused the influence of Degrelle to decline steadily. British newspapers and even Belgian cabinet members in 1940 denounced King Leopold bitterly as a traitor for surrendering the Belgian armies to the Germans. In 1941 the British press and all Belgians who are not Nazi sympathizers are praising the King for refusing to accept Nazi offers to restore him to power if he will rule under German direction.

No Reich commissioner has been appointed as yet in Belgium. The Germans have ruled the country through the Military High Command with the assistance of the Gestapo. The central administration of the country has been carried on by the permanent heads of the Belgian departments of State but the provincial governors have been replaced by German military governors. Later the Germans forbade all communal councils in Belgium to meet on the ground that they were centers of resistance to the 'New Order.' The Germans have tried to disrupt Belgium as much as possible, but unsuccessfully so far, by supporting the Flemish Separatists, and to a lesser degree the Rexists.

Economic Aspects.

Belgian economy has been completely subordinated to that of Germany. All industries in Belgium are forced to operate in the service of Germany. Conquered Belgians, like the peoples in other countries which the Germans have subjugated, are forced to transform their country into an arsenal for their enemies and oppressors. It is estimated that at least 50 per cent of the coal production of the Liège mine fields has been requisitioned by the Germans. Manufacturing activity which is not essential to the Nazi war effort has been prohibited to a large extent. This is due somewhat to the existing shortage of raw materials as well as to the Nazi desire for more implements of war. The textile industry is allowed to manufacture only 30 per cent of its normal output. Biscuits, cakes and other products of white flour are prohibited. Brewers are not allowed to use wheat, barley or rice in brewing. The use of oils or greases in the manufacture of linoleum, oilcloth, and patent leather is strictly forbidden. There is a serious food shortage. Coffee is unobtainable. Pipe tobacco is only occasionally available.

Unemployment has become a serious problem with the dislocation of Belgian industry. A National Labor Committee was established by the Nazis in Belgium. This committee is authorized to order employers to dismiss all single and childless men and replace them with heads of families. The dismissed workers receive no unemployment compensation and are obliged to accept any work that may be offered to them including work in Germany. Many Belgian women have been forced to go to Germany as housekeepers.

Resistance within Belgium.

Belgian resistance to the occupying forces increased in 1941 and came from all sections of the population. Early in the year the Germans imposed a daily curfew in the city of Antwerp because of the many acts of sabotage committed by the inhabitants. Later a heavy fine and a severe curfew was placed upon the city of Liège for the same reason. Dr. F. J. van de Meulebroeck, Burgomaster of Brussels, was dismissed from office and later arrested by the German military authorities because he refused to cooperate with them. Belgium's independence day, July 21, was the occasion of numerous anti-German demonstrations throughout the country. Street fighting broke out in several places. German authorities reproached Belgian police for not having broken up the demonstration and particularly for not saving Rexists and Flemish extremists from attack. In September, Belgian hostages were executed at Tournai for the shooting of a Rexist leader and German police officers. Later in the month the Secretary of the Rexist Party was killed by a bomb at the Party's central office. More and more Belgians were executed for espionage, sabotage, disturbing the internal peace, aiding the enemy, aiding Jews, and attacking German soldiers, German police and Rexists.

The Belgian National Legion of War Veterans was dissolved in December 1941 by the German authorities and 61 of its leaders were court-martialed on the charge that weapons, munitions and anti-German propaganda had been found at the headquarters of the legion. Toward the end of 1941 the University of Brussels closed its doors in protest against the German forces of occupation. The Germans insisted that 18 Flemish professors should be appointed to the faculty of the University which had been entirely Walloon. The University authorities refused to accept the appointment of three of the candidates, one of whom was a Flemish activist during the period of the First World War, and two who were strongly pro-German.

Belgians Fighting Abroad.

Belgian resistance to the Nazis continued outside Belgium. When the Belgian government left Brussels for London it retained its sovereignty over the Belgian Congo. The colonial administration there remained loyal to the Belgian government in exile. A colonial army of about 100,000 trained native troops with European officers was raised and equipped with British and American aid. Some 30,000 of them were sent overland through Central Africa to take part in the Ethiopian campaign. At the end of 1941 they were fighting in Libya. Belgian Congo is also helping the Allied war effort with important raw materials. A new Belgian army has been organized in England; Belgian pilots are fighting with the R.A.F.; new Belgian units are training in Canada; 400,000 tons of Belgian shipping are being used for the Allied cause.

Thus the situation of Belgium in 1941 may be summed up in the words of the Belgian Embassy in Washington: 'As in 1914 Belgian is conquered, occupied, but not subdued.'

1940: Belgium

Despite every effort to maintain her neutrality and independence, Belgium, in 1940, became again the battlefield of Europe. Belgians had not neglected preparations to resist an invading German army. The main line of Belgian defense lay along the Meuse River and the Albert Canal. For months before the invasion actually took place these lines had been constantly strengthened and extensive arrangements had been made for delaying an enemy advance. At the beginning of the year 650,000 men were mobilized. On Jan. 13 all soldiers who were on leave were recalled and the following day full control was taken over by Army headquarters with the King in command. After the invasion of Denmark and Norway in the middle of April the country was placed in a state of siege.

At the height of the last crisis before Belgium was invaded the perennial struggle between the Dutch speaking Flemings and the French-speaking Walloons caused some dissension in the Government and in the country. To satisfy Flemish aspirations the Government proposed to duplicate certain posts in the Education Ministry so as to add a Flemish assistant director to a department where the director was a Walloon and vice versa. As a result of Liberal opposition to these proposals the Pierlot cabinet resigned on April 25. Political harmony was temporarily restored by Premier Pierlot's withdrawal of his resignation after King Leopold had intervened personally in the domestic crisis and restored national unity.

German Invasion.

The German invasion of Belgium began at three o'clock on the morning of May 10 when German armed forces crossed the frontier of Belgium. Earlier in the same morning the Cabinet met; King Leopold took over the direction of the operations of defense and the Government ordered general mobilization. Great Britain and France were asked to implement their guarantee of Belgian frontiers by sending immediate aid. Later in the day M. Speak, Minister of Foreign Affairs, told the Belgian Chamber of Deputies that within thirty minutes the Allies had given a favorable reply to the Belgian appeal. By six o'clock in the morning French and British troops were en route to the fields of Flanders.

After Brussels, Antwerp and other cities had already been bombed and after fighting had been in progress for some hours the German Ambassador asked for a meeting with the Belgian Foreign Minister. The latter told the German representative that Germany once more had committed an act of aggression devoid of all justification. That the invasion of Belgium by German troops for the second time within the memory of living men caused widespread resentment throughout the world and particularly in the United States, as shown by the message of President Roosevelt to the King of the Belgians in which he said that the 'cruel invasion' had shocked and angered the people of the United States who hoped, as he did, that 'the policies which seek to dominate peaceful and independent peoples through force and military aggression may be arrested, and that the Government and people of Belgium may preserve their integrity and their freedom.'

A memorandum issued by the German foreign office contained the German reasons for invading Belgium and the Netherlands. The Germans alleged that since the outbreak of war Belgian and Dutch newspapers had surpassed even the British and the French in their anti-German attitude; Dutch and Belgians had allowed their territory to be used for British Secret Service attempts to stir up a revolution in Germany; Belgium had fortified only the frontier bordering on Germany, thus giving an undeniable proof of the true intentions of Belgian policy; Belgian mobilizations had been directed exclusively against Germany; Belgian and Dutch troops had been massed on the German frontier at a time when Germany had no troops concentrated on her frontier facing Belgium and the Netherlands, but Britain and France, on the other hand, had collected a strongly motorized army of invasion on the Franco-Belgian frontier; documents available to the Reich Government proved that the preparations of France and Britain for an attack on Germany through Belgian and Dutch territory had reached a very advanced stage. Furthermore, in spite of the fact that the Belgian Foreign Minister had had his attention repeatedly drawn to this attitude nothing was changed. If the Belgians and Dutch, continued the memorandum, said that this development was not according to their intentions but only because of their helplessness and that Britain and France had forced them to take up this attitude, it did not alter the facts. Before handing the memorandum to the German and foreign press the German Minister of Foreign Affairs said that Britain and France had at last dropped the mask; an attack on the Ruhr valley via Holland and Belgium was definitely planned. 'Our Fuehrer,' he added, 'was unwilling to have this important region submitted to new aggression. He therefore decided to take the neutrality of Belgium and Holland under his protection.'

Impartial historians of the future will undoubtedly consider the real reasons for the German invasion to be based upon military and economic strategy. The necessity of executing a great enveloping movement which would enable the German army to turn the strong defenses of the original Maginot Line of Eastern France was certainly a factor. The opportunity to obtain naval and aerial bases in Belgium from which attacks on Great Britain could be more effectively developed and the prospect of exploiting the rich industrial regions of Belgium were also important reasons for the German decision 'to protect' Belgian neutrality.

On the second day of the invasion the Germans succeeded in gaining a foothold in the Belgian defense position. Mass air attacks were made on several cities. On May 12 the passage of the Albert Canal was forced between Hasselt and Maastricht. By May 14 German troops had reached the French border in South Belgium. German air forces systematically destroyed many towns. The city of Namur was three-fourths destroyed before it was attacked by land troops. Louvain was seriously damaged. On May 17 German forces entered Brussels and captured Malines, and on the following day Hitler signed a decree which incorporated Eupen, Malmedy, and Moresnet (provinces which Belgium had obtained after the First World War) into the Reich. (See also EUROPEAN WAR.)

Surrender of Belgium.

By May 27 the situation of the Belgian army had become so desperate that King Leopold, as Commander-in-chief of the Army, sent a plenipotentiary to the German Army Headquarters and offered to surrender. The Belgian Army ceased to resist Germany's will at four o'clock on the following morning. This action on the part of King Leopold caused many of his former friends to denounce him. The Premier of France, M. Reynaud, declared: 'It is a fact without precedent in history.' The Belgian Cabinet, meeting in Paris, repudiated the action of the King. M. Pierlot, Premier of Belgium, said that the King, overruling the formal and unanimous advice of the Government, had opened negotiations and had treated with the enemy. He further declared: 'Belgium will be dumbfounded. But the fault of one man cannot be imputed to the whole nation.'

The Belgian Government resolved to continue the struggle and raise a new army in France and Britain. At another meeting of the Belgian Cabinet in France on May 30 a decree was approved which stated that: 'in view of the fact that the King is in the power of the invader, the Ministers, met together in council, declare that it is impossible for the King to reign.' This attitude of the Government was approved the next day by a rump meeting of the Belgian Parliament, at Limoges in France, which was attended by 54 Senators and 89 Deputies. This group agreed that it was now morally and juridically impossible for the King to reign and passed a resolution unanimously expressing indignation at the capitulation of the King and describing it as an act for which he would beat the responsibility in history.

King Leopold of the Belgians who, ever since his surrender, has considered himself a prisoner of war, has had no opportunity to speak for himself. When the smoke of war has cleared away it may well be discovered that King Leopold's surrender was an act of courage rather than one of dishonor. He and his army fought bravely; their position was rapidly becoming hopeless, and their efforts from the beginning were hampered by civilian refugees. The King refused to desert his soldiers. He insisted that he share their fate and their lot and his has certainly not been a happy one. Already certain prominent figures are defending the King's character and behavior, including the American Ambassador to Belgium, Mr. Cudahy, and ex-President Hoover.

Belgium is the only territory occupied by German forces which as yet has no native administration. The German authorities endeavored in vain to persuade King Leopold to assume the responsibility for the administration of Belgium which at present is carried on by the occupying forces.

Economic Conditions.

The German conquest has seriously disorganized the economic life of Belgium, which in normal times imported 50 per cent of its foodstuffs, chiefly from overseas, paying for these imports with manufactured goods. In a population of 8,000,000, 1,000,000 were reported unemployed in September. The number has increased since then as civilian refugees estimated at almost 2,000,000, have been returning from France. This sharp rise in unemployment has been due to an almost complete stoppage in the public services, particularly railways and shipping, and to a cessation of work in many private enterprises such as the building trades and undertakings that are dependent upon imported raw materials. A general breakdown of administration has also hampered business. Many of the unemployed Belgian workers are being recruited for work in the Reich.

German broadcasts have warned the Belgian peasants that all cereal crops are to be nationalized and that owing to lack of fodder they must sacrifice part of their cattle and poultry. Bread, meat, milk, eggs and butter have been severely rationed at levels about 30 per cent below those fixed for Germans. At the same time dairy products are being sent to Germany.

Government in Exile.

In July the German High Command for Belgium and Northern France proscribed all members of the Belgian Parliament and intellectuals who had taken refuge in France. The order also forbade 'the former members of the Pierlot Government now abroad' to return to Belgium.

Members of the Belgian Parliament in Great Britain, including four former Ministers, five Socialist and two Liberal Deputies, and one Liberal Senator, signed a statement declaring that if the pledges made by the Belgian Parliament were to be carried out, an antonymous Belgian fighting force must be organized together with Belgian ships and sailors; Belgian public and private assets must be mobilized; Belgian refugee labor employed in the common cause; all the resources of the Belgian Congo mobilized for the war; and all separatist and other maneuvers which weaken Belgian resistance parried.

The Minister of Finance, in a broadcast from London late in 1940, declared that the aim of the Belgian Government was the liberation of Belgium and the liberation of their King, who was a prisoner of war; restoration of their country's territorial integrity and independence. The Belgian Government is acting in full agreement with the British Government. A Belgian unit is entrusted with the defense of a sector in England. All Belgian shipping has been placed at the disposal of the British and all the resources of the Belgian Congo have been made available to the British for war requirements.

As 1940 ends, the future of Belgium is in doubt. The Belgium that this generation has known may disappear in a German controlled Europe. It is certain that only a British victory will ensure a free and independent Belgium.

1939: Belgium

Political Situation.

At the beginning of 1939, Premier Paul-Henri Spaak completed a reconstruction of his Cabinet. Five of the ministers including Premier Spaak were Socialists, four were Catholics, and three were Liberals. Premier Spaak handed over the portfolio of Foreign Affairs to M. Janson, a Liberal and former Premier. Two days after this reconstructed Cabinet had received a vote of confidence in the Chamber of Deputies by 123 to 20. Premier Spaak was assaulted by a crowd of war veterans, who demanded his resignation owing to the action of the government in appointing Dr. Adrian Maertens to the newly-formed Royal Flemish Academy. Dr. Maertens, a Flemish nationalist, had been a member of the Council of Flanders, which had cooperated with the Germans during the World War. For his action at that time he had been condemned to death as a traitor, but in 1937 was pardoned under an amnesty.

Premier Spaak made the appointment of Dr. Maertens a question of confidence in the Chamber and secured a favorable vote of 88 to 82 with 7 abstentions. But at a meeting of the leaders of the Liberal party with the three Liberal Ministers, it was decided that the latter would leave the Cabinet if Dr. Maertens remained in the Flemish Academy. Consequently Premier Spaak resigned on Feb. 9. Flemish party leaders then issued a manifesto claiming the right to cultural autonomy and declaring that they would not join any Cabinet whose program failed to include this measure.

M. Pierlot, a former Minister of Agriculture and of the Interior and a member of the Catholic party, formed a Cabinet Feb. 21 which included three Socialists. The Minister of Education, M. Blanquaert, was a professor at a Flemish University and favored Flemish cultural autonomy. In his message to the Chamber of Deputies, Premier Pierlot pointed out that the Flemish movement had revealed a strength of expansion which would have imperiled the existence of the state if it had remained compressed within the old limits. Important reforms had, therefore, been made in order to place on an equal footing the two Belgian cultural communities. Much, however, still remained to be done.

When the Prime Minister and the Minister of Finance announced a reduction of 5 per cent in nearly all state expenditures, as a contribution towards covering the ordinary budget deficit, the Socialist party protested, accusing the Finance Minister of following a deflationary policy. The Cabinet resigned on Feb. 27, owing to the opposition of the Socialists. King Leopold asked M. Soudan, a Socialist Senator, to form a government. He failed chiefly because the Liberals refused to cooperate as long as Dr. Maertens remained a member of the Flemish Academy. The King again sent for M. Pierlot, who stated that he could not count on the support of all the Catholics for a Catholic-Socialist coalition. Thereupon the King signed a decree dissolving Parliament and fixing elections for April 2. The gravity of the situation was emphasized by the King in a letter to M. Pierlot in which he wrote: 'The constitutional principles which hitherto had guaranteed the strength of our institutions are being increasingly disregarded. . . . The separation of powers (Executive, Judiciary, and Legislative) is no longer respected. Bodies without mandate are intervening in the formation and dislocation of governments.' See also WORLD ECONOMICS.

The entry of German troops into Prague caused a lessening of political friction in Belgium. Flemish newspapers published warnings of the dangers to the country inherent in the policies of autonomy for the Flemings and Walloons; pointing out that 'a house divided against itself cannot stand.' Flemings were urged to ponder over the lesson of Czechoslovakia. Socialist, Catholic, and Liberal papers also advised moderation and appealed to the nation for unity.

Elections.

In the elections the Catholics made gains in all parts of the country; the Liberals made progress in the towns; the Socialists lost votes everywhere except in Antwerp; and the Rexists, the Fascist party of Leon Degrelle, was swept almost out of existence, polling only one-third of the votes which they had obtained in 1936. Dr. Maertens announced his resignation from the Flemish Academy when the polling was closed and before the results were known. In the new Chamber of Deputies the Catholics had 73 seats, Socialists 64, Liberals 33, Flemish Nationalists 17, Communists 9, and the Rexists 4. In the cantons of Eupen, St. Vith, and Malmedy, which had belonged to Germany before the World War, pro-Belgian candidates obtained 54.71 per cent of the votes cast and the Heimattreue Front, the pro-German group, did not secure any seats.

After the elections, King Leopold asked M. Pierlot to form a Ministry of National Union on non-party lines. This was impossible, as the Socialist Party Congress, in spite of the protests of former Premier Spaak, rejected participation in the Government on the ground that the party's proper place was with the opposition in view of its failure in the elections. Finally, M. Pierlot formed a Cabinet of Catholics and Liberals on April 18. Premier Pierlot acted as Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Government's policy, the Prime Minister said, had a triple aim of safeguarding the country's independence by union of all Belgians which would be accomplished by reconciling the Flemings and Walloons, reforming the Constitution by a stricter application of the essential rules, and improving the economic and financial situation. The Chamber granted the Government special powers in matters of defense. Only the Flemish Nationalists voted against this. Special financial powers to accomplish economic and budgetary reform were voted to the Government. The only adverse votes were by the Socialists, Communists, and Flemish Nationalists. At the end of June, Premier Pierlot's Cabinet was voted down on a question in the budget, relating to transportation, but, contrary to precedent, the Cabinet did not resign. In view of the international situation, it was considered wiser that the Cabinet should remain and present the budget anew, with some alterations. After hostilities had begun in Europe, the Cabinet was reorganized. Former Premier Spaak became Minister of Foreign Affairs and four other Socialists became Ministers.

Domestic Affairs.

The outstanding event in Belgium in 1939 was the completion of the Albert Canal, celebrated by Belgians when King Leopold III unveiled a statue to his father, the late King Albert, at the head of the Liege-to-Antwerp canal. The canal is the greatest civilian undertaking ever carried out in Belgium. Started by King Albert in 1930 it is the greatest monument which he left. Not only of great commercial importance, enabling Antwerp to compete more effectively with Rotterdam for the heavy traffic of the upper Meuse basin, it has also military significance. Along the front of 70 miles the canal protects all the large towns and important industrial centers against an invasion through the Netherlands. By a system of defensive flooding, the waters of the canal could make hundreds of square miles impassable in a few hours.

King Leopold, on behalf of the seven states in the Oslo group, meeting in Brussels, issued an appeal for peace on Aug. 23, urging the submission of national differences to conciliation. On Aug. 29, King Leopold and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands issued a joint offer of mediation. They renewed this offer of good offices to the belligerents in November. (See THE NETHERLANDS.)

Full mobilization was ordered on Aug. 28, and King Leopold assumed command of the army. The Chamber of Deputies approved by a large majority a bill conferring on King Leopold, for the duration of mobilization, extensive powers which were practically dictatorial in scope.

Recurrent crises in Europe had caused a great decline in Belgian trade. The situation was aggravated further by the blockade of Germany by Great Britain. Unemployment was higher than it had been at any time for three years. It was estimated that the public debt increased by 1,175,000,000 francs over 1938. Finance Minister Camille Gutt said in April that Belgium was spending at a rate which created an annual deficit of 650,000,000 francs. Military measures taken to maintain Belgium's neutrality, after war began in Europe, increased expenditures still more. Great Britain's decision to seize all exports of German origin or ownership caused Belgium to protest and reserve all her rights under international law.

The last of the great Belgian war figures, Burgomaster Adolphe Max of Brussels, who won fame for his defiance of the Germany Army chiefs in 1914 during their occupation of the city, died in 1939. A pillar of the Liberal party, Max had been Burgomaster of Belgium's capital since 1909. See also RELIGION: Jews.

1938: Belgium

Finances.

Financial difficulties were a constant source of irritation in Belgium during the year 1938. In March, M. DeMan resigned as Minister of Finance and was replaced by M. Soudan. At that time the budget showed a large deficit due mainly to increased expenditures for national defense, public health and old-age pensions. In some circles the increase in the number of public employees was considered an important cause of increased taxation. In 1914 there were 103,524 public employees in Belgium. In 1937 there were 149,365 and all of them were receiving higher wages. King Leopold signed a decree providing for the gradual reduction of the number of civil servants. The decree provided that as public officials die or are pensioned they are to be replaced only in special cases. The economic situation was aggravated by French devaluation which resulted in practically closing the French market to Belgian goods. Unable to cope with the budgetary situation, the coalition Cabinet, composed of Catholics, Liberals, and Socialists, headed by the Liberal, Paul Emile Janson, resigned on May 13. The Catholics insisted on drastic cuts in Governmental expenditures particularly in regard to social reforms. The Socialists on the other hand insisted on fresh taxation. King Leopold showed his influence by the unprecedented action of asking the Foreign Minister Paul Henri Spaak, a Socialist, to form a new Cabinet after consulting only three political chieftains.

Political Situation.

By May 15 M. Spaak had formed a new ministry, becoming Belgium's youngest and first Socialist Premier. The new Cabinet, which was reduced from 15 to 11 Ministers, included 4 Socialists, 4 Catholics, 2 Liberals and a General. Banking and industrial interests were especially well represented. The greatest responsibility in the new Cabinet was assumed by the new Finance Minister, Max Lee Gerard, a Liberal who for five years had been secretary to the late King Albert. During the first Government of Paul Van Zeeland, when he put the country's money on a sound basis after the devaluation of March 1936, M. Gerard had earned the reputation of being one of the best Finance Ministers in Belgium since the World War. The other key Ministry, the combined Economic and Agricultural Department was assigned to Paul Hymans, a Catholic, banker, and engineer who had been a professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1924 to 1926. M. Spaak retained the Foreign Portfolio and Lieutenant General Henri Denis retained the Portfolio of National Defense.

In his ministerial declaration, M. Spaak indicated that the Belgian Constitution might have to be reshaped by measures which would insure Cabinet stability and more efficient procedure in Parliament. Budgetary economies were promised. The first measure passed to bolster the budget abolished the Belgian 'blue laws.' This new law permitted liquor to be served in cafes and restaurants instead of limiting the sale to stores. A national crisis tax was instituted which provided for a progressive tax on all remunerations, indemnities, pensions, and annuities. The duties on petrol and tobacco were increased. These measures did not solve Belgium's financial troubles. In December, a crisis occurred when the Socialists fought the economic policy of the Government as deflationary. The immediate fall of the Cabinet was averted by the resignation of Finance Minister Max Leo Gerard. Albert Edouard Janssen, a Catholic and Finance Minister in 1925, became the third Minister of Finance in Belgium during the year 1938. At the same time, Premier Paul Spaak enlarged his cabinet by creating new Ministries of Agriculture, Foreign Trade and Unemployment.

The crisis became more acute when Premier Spaak appointed a commercial agent to the Spanish Insurgent Government at Burgos. The withdrawal by the Spanish Government of its Ambassador in Brussels angered Catholic and Liberal groups in the Government. The Premier's own Socialist party voted against him in spite of the fact that he had stated that he would resign unless the Socialists supported him. Emile Vandervelde, veteran Labor leader and an avowed friend of Loyalist Spain, led the fight against M. Spaak's policy toward the Spanish Insurgents. As the year closed it was not clear if Parliament would be dissolved or if a compromise might be reached over the Spanish question. (See also SOCIALISM.)

Léon Degrelle's Rexist party, Belgium's pro-Fascist political organization, was kept in eclipse during 1938. Degrelle courted popularity by attacking increased taxation. At the time of the Czechoslovakian crisis the would-be dictator called a meeting of his followers in Schaerbeck suburb and threatened to march upon Brussels with a procession. The Burgomaster of Brussels forbade the procession and nothing came of it. It was announced that, in searching the houses of Rexist deputies and Flemish leaders, the police had discovered documents tending to prove that the Rexist party and Flemish Nationalists were maintaining organizations of a military character.

Elections.

In the communal elections held in October, the Catholic, Liberal and Socialist parties were heavy winners at the expense of the extremist groups — Rexists, Communists, and Flemish Nationalists. The pro-French Liberal party which was thought to be on the decline gained in all parts of the land. Even in districts that belonged to Germany before the World War the vote was favorable to Belgian candidates. Malmédy voted heavily for all Belgian candidates. In Eupen the Nazi sympathizers were stronger but did not sweep the district. The collapse of the Rexists may have been partly due to the illness of their leader, Degrelle, but the movement had obviously been declining for some time.

Domestic Difficulties.

In the linguistic struggle in Belgium the Walloons, French-speaking Belgiums, were on the defensive. Premier Paul Spaak in his ministerial statement in the Chamber of Deputies on May 17 declared that the misgivings of the Walloons about becoming a linguistic minority were receiving attention. While M. Spaak read his statement in the Senate, Senator Van Dieren, a Flemish Nationalist, and a number of his party colleagues left their seats and walked out after a request that the statement be read in Flemish had been rejected by 117 votes to 10. Earlier in the year M. Tellenaere, a Flemish deputy, had caused a tumult in the lower house by attacking the French Ambassador Paul Bargeton. M. Tellenaere wanted to know if, in the event of a European conflict, the Belgian Government would permit French troops to move through Belgium territory. The President of the Chamber of Deputies, Camille Huysmans, rebuked the Flemish deputy for his attack on the French Ambassador and the Government refused to answer his question.

Foreign Affairs.

Belgium adhered to her policy of strict independence in international affairs. After the annexation of Austria by Germany, M. Spaak in a speech before the Chamber of Deputies declared that Belgium could not hope for security from the League of Nations but must have a strong army and try to avoid becoming entangled in a war. In August, 40,000 troops took part in the most spectacular manoeuvres ever held in Belgium. The manoeuvres were held along the Dutch and German borders, the same route over which the German armies marched in 1914. At the time of the Czechoslovakian crisis there was considerable anxiety about Eupen and Malmédy, districts which had belonged to Germany before the World War. Several pro-Hitler youths in Eupen who demonstrated in the streets there had been arrested in March. Three aldermen of Eupen who had conducted themselves in an unpatriotic manner during a visit of the Belgian Minister of the Interior to Eupen and Malmédy had been removed in April by the Governor of Liége Province with the approval of the Minister of the Interior. Belgians were relieved when, at the height of the crisis, German troops were withdrawn from the German side near Eupen and replaced by police. They were reassured when Premier Spaak stated that all indications were that the Great Powers would respect their guarantees of Belgium's frontiers. Belgium's forts were permanently and fully manned in September to meet any crisis. In March, Count André de Kerchove de Denterghem was appointed Ambassador to Italy filling a post that had been vacant for a year. In September it was announced that the Belgian Legation in Berlin was being raised to the rank of an Embassy. The status of the German Legation in Brussels was likewise being raised. A fervent appeal to the world to assure peace by a heroic effort to eliminate the economic causes of war was made by King Leopold in Paris in October when he dedicated a monument to his father, the late King Albert.

Relations between Belgium and Germany were not on a basis of complete friendliness at the end of the year. Joachim von Ribbentrop, Germany's Foreign Minister, made demands that the Belgian press show a more friendly attitude toward Germany. A high official of the Belgian Foreign Ministry suggested to the President of the Belgian Press Association that the press itself should draft curbing regulations. The answer to this suggestion was a unanimous vote of the Press Association to resist any attempts to interfere with the freedom of the press.

See also OSLO POWERS; PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE.