1941: League Of Nations

Nonpolitical Activities.

Despite its political standstill the work of the League of Nations during 1941 has been continued in several branches of its non-political activities, especially in the sections on economic, financial and transit, on social and humanitarian, and on legal and administrative questions. The latter includes the regular publication of treaties registered with the League and a comprehensive inquiry into the legal status of women. So far as possible the Secretariat maintains, as against post-war reconstruction needs, all exchanges of information regarding health, nutrition, housing, social assistance to and the welfare of young people. The Drug Control Service of both the Secretariat and the Permanent Central Opium Board pursues its regular work through a branch office in Washington; the study and control of serum standards by health agencies and the general work of the medical services go on. Regarding economic, financial and transit questions, the grant of $50,000 by the Rockefeller Foundation for 1941 and 1943 has enabled the staff in Princeton to follow economic developments outside of Europe, while those still in Geneva carry on for Europe and for cooperation with the Western Hemisphere. Some 80 persons are still working in Geneva.

Publications.

Publications under the League during the year included much valuable material. Of particular interest is the ninth edition of the World Economic Survey for 1939-41, published at Princeton by the Economic Intelligence Section. The survey shows the trends and developments of world economy, the measures taken in various countries and the impacts of the war upon those countries, with a summary of the world economic situation in mid-summer, 1941. The uninterrupted publication of the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics has contained useful compilations of trends of prices and costs of living; the Statistical Yearbook likewise continues. In health matters, the regular publications maintained are the section's Bulletin and the Weekly Epidemiological Record. The general activities of the League during 1940-41 were described in a Brief Statement by the Acting Secretary-General, Sean Lester, issued from Geneva in June.

Membership.

France and Finland have formally announced withdrawal from the League, but 48 states remain members and try to contribute to the League's greatly reduced budget, which must support the International Labor Organization and the World Court, as well as the League itself. See also WORLD PEACE.

1940: League Of Nations

With war conditions prevailing in Europe, Asia and Africa, political activities of the League of Nations have ended for the present. Further formal withdrawals included Rumania, which announced its intention on July 11, and Denmark on July 19; Chile's withdrawal became effective June 2 and Venezuela's July 15.

Non-Political Activities.

In the technical or non-political field, representatives of ten countries (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Great Britain, France, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland and Turkey) met at The Hague, February 7-8, to establish a 'central committee of thirty-two members for economic and social questions' as recommended by the Special Committee on International Cooperation in Economic and Social Affairs, set up by the Council in May, 1939. Plans for reorganization were completed in April. The former sections of the Secretariat will be grouped in three departments — general affairs, economic and financial questions, and the combination of the health section with social questions, opium and intellectual cooperation into a Department of Health, Drug Control and Social and Cultural Questions. The Health Committee of the new department has decided to build up gradually an international documentation center for health matters. This in time will provide adequate facilities for supplying documentary material relating to such matters as health conditions in particular regions, the course of prevailing epidemics, and recent demographic data. Requests for such material have greatly increased from both official and unofficial sources and go beyond the health organization's current facilities. At present the health center can send only what information it has, but it is preparing for the future by arranging the classification and utilization of all its documentary material.

While the reorganization is purely administrative and does not affect the technical work itself of the League, yet it will enable a more effective coordination and centralization of work under a greatly reduced staff. The budget for 1941 amounts to 50 to 65 per cent below that for 1940 owing to smaller contributions from some states and none from others. During May a large percentage of the Secretariat's staff was retired or had their contracts temporarily suspended; slightly over one hundred persons, out of a previous maximum of seven hundred, continue in Geneva. The Secretary-General. M. Joseph C. Avenol, resigned on July 26, and Mr. Sean Lester now serves as Acting Secretary-General. In July Princeton University, in conjunction with the Institute for Advanced Study and the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research at Princeton, invited the League to send to Princeton for the duration of the war its sections of finance and economies, opium control, and public health. The Financial and Economic Section accepted the offer and now has its headquarters in the building of the Institute for Advanced Study. Eight members of the section went to Princeton from Geneva.

Research and Information Services.

League functions, especially in research and information, are continuing, although practically no meetings of even technical bodies are being held despite the much greater importance of various problems during war conditions. Activities regarding registration of treaties, mandates, minorities and armaments are carried on although with diminished pace. Reduced operations, personnel and funds necessitate fewer publications, but others continue, such as the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, the Weekly Epidemiological Record, the Treaty Series, the Annual Review of Money and Banking, the Armaments Year-Book, the Statistical Year-Book, as well as numerous publications on social and health questions. The League library is open on a reduced scale, with its collections intact and some accessions through gifts, exchanges and purchase.

International Labor Office.

The International Labor Office continues on a fifty per cent smaller budget: its publications go on, but no meetings of the Conference, the Governing Body, or of any other of its political bodies, are in prospect. A branch office, with a staff of thirty persons, has been opened temporarily in Montreal. Canada, chiefly for serving the Western Hemisphere in technical matters, while the headquarters in Geneva remain the center for archives and documentation. Both offices maintain a certain amount of research and information collection.

Permanent Court of International Justice.

With Holland under German occupation, the Permanent Court of International Justice could not function and most of its personnel had to disperse. Appropriations for the Court in the League's budget have provided for maintaining the Registry and for partial indemnities for the judges during the present time, and in October the President and the Registrar were staying in Geneva; but no resumption of the Court's operations can be contemplated for the time being. Great Britain on March 11 renewed its acceptance, for a further five years, of the Court's jurisdiction on the same reservations as before, save that it would not accept jurisdiction in disputes arising from events occurring when the country was involved in hostilities.

1939: League Of Nations

League Status Weakened.

From the Munich crisis of 1938, when the League of Nations was not even consulted in a matter in which two League members, yielding to the threats of a non-member, agreed to give away the greater part of a third member, to its unprecedented expelling of Russia from membership in December, 1939, the wonder is not so much at its enforced inactivity in political affairs, as that it survived at all and was alive to take action against Soviet Russia. Shorn of many members — Albania, Hungary, Peru and Spain resigned during 1939 — and the Council now reduced through Russia's expulsion to two permanent members, its political action has become very cautious, and its non-political activities have been severely handicapped by greatly diminished funds. Yet the League, living because it possesses a principle vital to peace, has upheld the cause of Finland. Greater participation along technical, social and economic lines affords a partial answer to its continued existence. In a note of Feb. 2 the Government of the United States praised its efforts, promising further collaboration.

The Council met Jan. 16-20, May 22-27, and Dec. 9-14. The regular September meetings of the Assembly and the Council were omitted because of the European War, but both bodies convened Dec. 9 to act upon Finland's appeal against Russia. The Assembly re-elected Bolivia to non-permanent membership in the Council and chose the Union of South Africa and Finland to succeed New Zealand and Peru.

Resolutions of the Council.

At its 104th meeting, in January, the Council adopted two resolutions: it recalled its previous recommendations to League members regarding China and took into account, without adopting, the Chinese appeal for sanctions against Japan and assistance to China; and it denounced bombing of civilian populations in Spain as either intentional or negligent, and condemned recourse to inhumane and illegal methods. The 105th session in May heard another appeal from the Chinese Government and again by resolution expressed its sympathy and urged members to aid China practically, and once more condemned Japanese bombing of civilians.

Fortification of the Aaland Islands.

As required by the Convention of 1921 for the Nonfortification and Neutralization of the Aaland Islands, the governments of Finland and Sweden reported to the Council their decision to refortify the islands on account of the present uncertainty in Europe. To this the other signatories to the convention formally agreed. Although Russia was not a party, it insisted that the Council delay action because it had not received sufficient information from Finland regarding either the purpose of fortification or the guarantee against an aggressor's occupying the islands. Thus the Council felt itself obliged to take no decision on the question. By December the Soviet had already attacked Finland, and the Aalands were, with Sweden's approval, fortified.

Organization for Technical Problems.

The Council on May 23 set up a committee for studying and reporting on the appropriate organization to ensure the development and expansion of the League's machinery for dealing with technical problems, and for promoting the active participation of all nations in such efforts. The committee in August submitted a comprehensive report. In phraseology, the committee has preferred to describe as 'economic and social questions' those matters usually referred to as 'technical problems,' in distinction to 'political problems,' because 'technical problems' are really political matters of internal importance. In the report the committee proposed a revision of this part of the League's existing organization by creating a new Central Committee for Economic and Social Questions, composed of the representatives of twenty-four states chosen by the Assembly and of not more than eight co-opted by the committee and appointed in a personal capacity for their special competence. One task for the committee is to study conditions for the fullest participation of all states in the social and economic work regardless of League membership. The committee will have very complete powers in all matters of procedure and supervision. What is hoped from this new departure is fresh efficiency and vigor in the work itself and greater co-ordination to meet the growing interconnection between different organizations.

Czechoslovakia and Albania.

Appeals to the League were received from Dr. Benes of Czechoslovakia (March) and King Zog of Albania (May) against forcible invasion of their respective countries. Since neither was then officially connected with these countries, the Council could communicate the protests only to members of the League.

Committee on Narcotics.

At its meeting in May the Advisory Committee on Opium and Dangerous Drugs discussed without action the situation in the Far East. The United States' Narcotics Commissioner reported the deterioration and alarming situation of drug control and trade caused by lack of Japanese cooperation in areas under their control and the consequent, enormous increase in drug addicts. Statistics showed the sale of opium as the second largest revenue-producing item in the budget of Manchuria. The Chinese delegate maintained that the Japanese Government was lax because it wished to secure revenues to pay for its invasion of China, to provide for undesirable Japanese and Koreans whom it desired to keep away from Japan, and to furnish means of weakening Chinese resistance. The United States in October pledged its continued assistance to the committee. With Turkey's ratification, the Convention of 1936, for the suppression of illicit traffic in dangerous drugs, went into force on Oct. 20.

Anglo-Palestine Situation.

Administration of the British mandate over Palestine furnished the principal discussion by the Permanent Mandates Commission at its thirty-sixth session, June 8-20. The British Colonial Secretary stated as British policy its definite conclusion that, since the main cause of the trouble lay in Arab fear of Jewish domination, the remedy must try to remove uncertainty for the future by limiting arbitrarily Jewish immigration to economic and political absorption in Palestine. Because the British Government had simultaneously to think of the passionate attitude of the Arabs and the carrying out of the Balfour Declaration regarding a Jewish national home, it must provide for a large degree of local autonomy in both Jewish and Arab provinces and for a central unitary or federal government in which Jews and Arabs should be officially associated and become accustomed to living side by side.

The Mandates Commission's report and the British reply were published on Aug. 17. The Commission unanimously agreed that the British policy of finding the present mandate unworkable since it could not reconcile Jewish and Arab aspirations, was out of accord with the terms of the mandate. By a nominal majority the Commission decided upon the advisability of a new interpretation of the mandate not at variance with the new policy. The chief difference between the Commission and the British Government was that the latter felt the political development of great importance in discharging its obligations as mandatory, while the Commission and the Council, disregarding the political background, seemed to concentrate on the interpretation of the mandate. According to a majority of the Commission, the British proposals for limiting Jewish immigration and for land settlement contravened the mandate's terms by providing inadequate safeguards for the Jews; they objected also to the proposed constitution for Palestine.

The British reply asserted that to continue a policy resulting in perpetual strife and enmity would defeat their obligation to place the country under the political, economic and administrative conditions necessary for developing a Jewish national home. Therefore, it had suggested limiting Jewish immigration and advancement towards a federal constitution. There the matter rested, pending a decision by the Council of the League.

Expulsion of Soviet Russia.

On Dec. 9 the Council heard the appeal of Finland under Articles XI and XVI against Russia for unprovoked aggression, amidst a considerable variety of views among members of the League. Some threatened to resign unless their views were followed; others feared the consequences of strong action against Russia. The Soviet definitely opposed presentation of the Finnish plea and refused to appear before the League. The Council referred the subject to the Assembly, which, after hearing Finland, appointed a committee of thirteen to report upon the appeal. The committee found that Russia had broken eight legal agreements which provided pacific settlement of disputes between the two states, and declared Russia the aggressor. It called on member states to lend all possible aid to Finland, offered League facilities for coordinating such help, and suggested that non-members be invited to cooperate. After hearing the views of many states, the Assembly adopted the report, as did the Council. The latter, accordingly, proceeded under paragraph 4 of Article XVI to declare that by its action the Soviet 'has placed itself outside the League of Nations. It follows that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is no longer a member of the League.' While several states abstained, there were no negative votes. The remaining step was to organize, through the Secretariat and expert services, immediate and practical aid for Finland on the widest possible scale. This is the first expulsion in the League's history. It deprives the organization of a major contributor of revenue at a time of budget difficulties. It supports with all the facilities of the League a small and weak state against a powerful aggressor. It represents a moral victory after many evidences of collapse. However fruitless to the League and Finland, that fact remains. See also PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE; WORLD PEACE.

1938: League Of Nations

League Council and Assembly.

The Council met Jan. 27-Feb. 2, May 9-14, and during the nineteenth ordinary session of the Assembly, Sept. 12-30, 1938. In September the Council and Assembly reviewed the work of the League during last year. Membership was reduced through withdrawal of Guatemala, May 30, and Honduras, July 10; Chile, May 13, and Venezuela's announced intention to withdraw. The German Government, March 18, notified the League that Austrian membership had ceased. Ethiopia abstained provisionally from sending representation to the Assembly. Forty-nine states will then be left as active members. Following Italy's withdrawal (Dec. 11, 1937) and resignation of the staff, the International Educational Cinematographic Institute terminated its activities in December, as will the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, in 1940. Both institutions, created and maintained in Rome by the Italian Government, were affiliated with the League. The Intellectual Cooperation Organization, and especially the Institute in Paris, will continue the Cinematographic Institute's work. The Assembly elected as non-permanent members of the Council the Dominican Republic, Greece, and Yugoslavia, to succeed Poland, Ecuador, and Rumania.

Czechoslovakian Crisis.

Regarding the European crisis in September, the Soviet representative attacked the League for failing to extend collective assistance to Czechoslovakia, emphasizing Russia's willingness to do so; and the Assembly unanimously adopted a Cuban proposal welcoming President Roosevelt's action and associating itself with the same spirit. The resolution expressed the anxiety of the representatives of the forty-nine states watching the grave political situation and, by emphasizing the need for peaceful solution, earnestly hoped that 'no government will attempt to impose a settlement by force.'

League Status Weakened.

At the initiative of Great Britain, France, and the Soviet, the Council in January reaffirmed its faith in the League system of international cooperation, yet considered the situation of the League's status as shown by its weakness toward events in Ethiopia, Spain, and China and withdrawals and hostile attitudes of various states. Great Britain and some smaller nations, especially Switzerland, Sweden, and Holland, wished to modify Article XVI (sanctions) so as to abolish obligatory for optional sanctions. In general, the British desired strengthening machinery for peaceful settlement by cooperation instead of making sanctions obligatory. The Council referred the matter to the special Committee of Twenty-eight which sat separately Jan. 31-Feb. 2; there, so many delegates unexpectedly supported the present interpretation of Article XVI that the committee recommended the Assembly to leave sanctions intact juridically. At the request of the Swiss Government, and at its assurances that restoration of its absolute neutrality would not interfere with the free working of the League on its territory, the Council in May declared that Switzerland would no longer be asked to apply sanctions. The German Government has promised to respect this neutrality. Similar were the Norwegian declarations, on May 31, that it reserved the right to maintain neutrality in any war resulting from League action unapproved by Norway and, to the Assembly, Sept. 16, that it would decide for itself any action under Article XVI. The Assembly failed to adopt the substitution, for unanimity in Article XI, unanimity without parties to the dispute. As for separation of the Covenant from the peace treaties and collaboration of non-member states with the League, the Assembly decided to communicate its resolutions to non-members and embodied verbal amendments to the Covenant, enabling its separation from the treaties in a protocol signed by twenty-seven states and open for further signatures.

Spanish Civil War.

Regarding Spain, the Council in May rejected a draft resolution to end the present policy of non-intervention, and the Assembly in September was reminded by the Spanish representative that for the third time Spain was appearing before it as the unaided victim of aggression. At the request of the President of Spain, the Assembly instructed the Council to set up immediately a commission of three (Great Britain, France, and Iran) to vouch for carrying out immediate and complete withdrawal of all non-Spanish combatants on the Government side. The commission appointed three neutral commissioners and nine observers who reached Barcelona Oct. 17 and were to report to the Council in January 1939. The Council agreed to receive similarly any analogous request from the Insurgents. The Spanish Government also requested the League's technical aid in providing foodstuffs during the winter for the three million refugees from rebel territory. The report of the preliminary inquiry, published in November, stated the existence of acute food shortage throughout the territory, commended the Government's efforts at relief, and recommended a relief commission to work with Spanish authorities.

Sino-Japanese Situation.

The Chinese Government appealed at all meetings of the League. In January the Council emphasized an earlier resolution (Oct. 6, 1937) that the states with special interests in China should consider what steps could be taken to settle the conflict equitably; China regarded this as inadequate. The Council in May pointed out that use of poison gas has been condemned by international law, but, while expressing sympathy, did little but remind members of previous resolutions urging them to give China any possible aid. By September hostilities had intensified, and at the Assembly and Council meetings China urged immediate and effective application of Article XVII. Concretely it requested application of an embargo on armaments and certain raw materials, the adoption of financial and material assistance, and the sending of a commission of neutral observers to report to the League on events at various fronts. Japan refused the Council's invitation to comply with obligations under Article XVII (for non-members). Thus thwarted, the Council decided that sanctions had become applicable, but that the moment was not suitable for collective action. It further declared Japan's action as violating the Kellogg Pact and the Nine Power Treaty of 1922, and invited League members to support China individually and to do nothing that might weaken its power of resistance. The Assembly adopted a similar statement. Japan threatened counter-measures against any sanctions. Additional funds were appropriated for continuing the work of the anti-epidemic commission through which the Health Committee gives technical advice to the Chinese Government.

Technical Organizations of the League.

The Economic and Financial Organization discussed its work at meetings of its committees July 4-9, when the various reports made clear the close connection between nationalistic policy and economic depression. In October the Health Committee held an important session, which was preceded by meetings of two groups of experts on questions of medico-social policy and on health indices in rural districts in preparation for a European conference on rural life. At the regular meeting of the Mandates Commission in October the Japanese delegate refused to take part. The regular annual report, minus the customary explanation by a representative, was received from Japan, and hence no adverse action was taken. On Nov. 3 Japan broke all relations with technical organizations of the League, claiming that the Council's resolution of Sept. 30, at China's insistence, encouraged individual application of sanctions against Japan.