1942: Arabia

This vast peninsula, mostly desert, covers an area of about 1,000,000 sq. mi. with a population estimated at 10,000,000. In the present war Arabia occupies an important strategic position at the flank of the great transcontinental routes connecting the Mediterranean with central and eastern Asia. The more the Near and Middle East become decisive theaters of war, the greater becomes the importance of the attitude of the Arabs.

The largest part of the peninsula is covered by the kingdom of Saudi Arabia under the enlightened rule of King Ibn Saud. Since his treaty of May 20, 1937 with Great Britain, in which his complete independence was recognized, King Ibn Saud has followed a faithful policy, in spite of the fact that both Germany and Italy have made great efforts to gain his sympathy and even his active collaboration. During 1942 the Arabian peninsula remained at peace, and the King's pro-British policy proved to be one of the chief assets of Great Britain and the United Nations in that part of the world. His hands were strengthened by repeated British promises that after the war the British would support the longing of the Arabs for political unity within a greater Arabia which would comprise at least the peninsula, Iraq, Syria, Palestine and Trans-Jordan. King Ibn Saud is one of the most active supporters of the policy of Arab unity and independence and was especially interested in the fate of the Arabs in Palestine.

Ibn Saud's cooperation with the United Nations was emphasized when he broke off diplomatic relations with Italy in February 1942. At the same time the United States sent an agricultural mission to Arabia at his request, to help explore the possibilities for developing the agricultural resources of the kingdom; to investigate the possibilities of irrigation; and to conduct experimental plantings. The King showed himself completely unmoved by the promises as well as by the threats of the Axis powers. He remained convinced that the fulfillment of the great hopes of Arab nationalism for complete unity and independence were bound up with a victory of the democratic nations. The wise British policy not only secured Arab support by its understanding of Arab national aspirations, but by the economic help given to the Arab lands and to Egypt. The war brought with it a certain prosperity and the lands within British influence knew none of the privations and starvations reported from countries under Axis influence. The British also showed great wisdom in not demanding the active participation of the Arab countries in the war; they were satisfied with benevolent neutrality and all help short of war.

The American minister to Egypt, Alexander C. Kirk was appointed the first American minister to Saudi Arabia and visited King Ibn Saud in the spring. His good work was continued by the American agricultural mission headed by K. S. Twitchell who knows Arabia and the King well. King Ibn Saud's son, the Emir Mansour, visited Egypt as a guest of the British. Thus during 1942 the ties between Arabia and the United Nations became closer and closer.

Though King Ibn Saud is by far the most important ruler in Arabia and holds a special position in the Islamic world on account of his control of the sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina, the centers of the yearly pilgrimage from all Mohammedan lands, he is not the only ruler in Arabia. The very fertile southwestern corner of Arabia, Yemen, is under the rule of Imam Yehya. His kingdom is of importance strategically because it lies directly to the northwest of Aden, one of the important strategic outposts of Great Britain at the exit from the Red Sea. Yemen was formerly under Italian influence, but the preponderance of Ibn Saud, which was expressed in the treaty of Taif in June 1934, and the weakening of Italy in the last years, have contributed to the growing influence of Great Britain. Yet the Yemen is much more remote from all communications and from any participation in world politics than Saudi Arabia.

Along the western shore of the Persian Gulf there are, on the Arabian peninsula, a number of Arab states which are in treaty relations with the British. The most important among them are the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman, the Sheikhdom of Kuwait at the northwestern coast of the Persian Gulf, and finally the Bahrein islands, an archipelago 20 miles off the Arabian coast. They are of importance on account of their oil resources. Oil was discovered in Bahrein in 1932 and is being exploited at present by the Bahrein Petroleum Company which is owned by the Standard Oil Company of California and the Texas Corporation. In 1939-40 the export of crude oil amounted to more than 52,000,000 tons. An American company is also exploiting oil in Saudi Arabia, where oil was struck first in 1938. By the end of 1939 many wells had been drilled and considerable export of oil had begun. A new concession, signed in August 1939, extended the area of operation, and at the same time provided for increased royalties to the Saudi Arabian government which uses them to build up and equip a modern army, and to expand modern communications on the Arab peninsula.

1941: Arabia

The peace of the vast peninsula, of which by far the larger part is under the energetic and enlightened government of King Ibn Saud was not disturbed during 1941. Ibn Saud followed, in spite of blandishments proffered by Nazi and Fascist agents, a policy of benevolent neutrality towards the Allies. The coup d'état in the neighboring Arabic kingdom of Iraq, by which a pro-Nazi government came into power and tried to provoke a pan-Arab revolt, remained without any influence upon Ibn Saud, who kept his Arabic tribesmen under control and thus helped the British to reinstate in Iraq a friendly government. In the summer of 1941 a meeting of the tribal leaders of Saudi Arabia was held at Taif, the famous summer residence near Mecca, in which the viceroy of Hejaz, Ibn Saud's son, Feisal, read a message from his father exhorting all his subjects to maintain order and to pursue their callings without worrying about international developments. Ibn Saud also interned the Germans and Italians who had taken refuge from enemy action in the Red Sea and East Africa, and did not allow the German minister to Iraq, Dr. Fritz Grobba, to go to Arabia to continue his propaganda there.

The Arabs welcomed the repeated statements of British statesmen which, in unequivocal terms, promised British support for Arab independence and especially for the achievement of Arab unity, for which all the Arabs strive. The fact that Syria received her formal independence after the Free French and the British forces had entered the country, and that the French mandate was declared terminated, was generally regarded as foreshadowing the British intentions after the termination of the war. The new president of the Syrian Republic, Sheikh Tajeddin Hassani, welcomed this step as definitely aligning the Arabs with the democratic powers in the struggle for the longed-for Arab unity. He rightly pointed out that all the details for a free economic and cultural intercourse between the Arab lands and for political forms of close collaboration or federation must be worked out by the Arabs themselves. Different schemes were discussed, but the dynastic claims of the Ibn Saud family and of the Hashimite family, members of which are ruling in the Arab countries of Iraq and Trans-Jordania, and the promise of the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine presented difficulties for the future. All these questions of course had to wait for a definite settlement until after the war, but Great Britain's strengthened position in the Near and Middle East reflected favorably upon the Arab attitude towards her. Only one of the Arab extremist leaders, the former mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin el Husseini, made common cause with the Fascists. Having been driven from Palestine, he took refuge in Syria, in Iraq and finally in Iran. There he maintained close contact with German propagandists and in October 1941, succeeded in fleeing by plane from the Middle East to Rome. The Italian radio station at Bari was the main source for Axis propaganda in Arabic among the Arab-speaking populations of the Near East.

1940: Arabia

The situation in the Arabian peninsula continued generally unchanged during 1940. Diplomatic relations were opened for the first time between the United States and the most important native state of the Arabian peninsula, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. On Feb. 4 the United States Minister to Egypt presented his credentials to King Ibn Saud in Jedda, the port of Mecca. The establishment of diplomatic relations followed the acquisition of important American oil interests in the Arabian peninsula. These interests are located as much in Saudi territory as in the smaller states along the Persian Gulf, especially on the Bahrein Islands. On Oct. 19 the refineries, pipe lines and stores of fuel on the Bahrein Islands were reported struck by Italian bombers. The oil concessions there which are now for the first time in full production are American-owned.

The peace of the Arab peninsula was not disturbed because of world events, but the Arabs followed events with the closest attention. Italian and German propaganda tried to enlist their support, but so far without any visible success. The Arabs hope, in case of a British victory, to retain or to gain their full independence, whereas they are afraid that in case of a fascist victory their lands would be colonized by Italian immigrants, as is the case in Libya, and that they would lose their independence completely, as did the Arabs in Libya. The defection of France from the allied cause made the situation more acute, because the Syrian problem and the future status of Syria became of great concern to the Arabs generally. The idea of a federation of all Arab lands was much in the forefront of Arab political discussions, but the rivalry between the royal house of Ibn Saud and that of the Hashimite family which rules in Iraq and Transjordan made impossible so far any close cooperation of the different Arab lands.

The strong stand which Great Britain was able to keep in the Mediterranean for more than six months after Italy had declared war, the failure so far of the campaign of the Italians in Egypt, and above all the defeats which in the last months of 1940 the Greeks were able to inflict upon the Italian troops, in spite of the numerical and technical superiority of the latter, have gone very far to increase British prestige with the Arabs and to undermine the respect for the fascist arms and fascist efficiency.

1939: Arabia

Arabia, a great peninsula of Southwestern Asia, occupies an area of approximately 1,000,000 square miles and contains a population estimated at about 10,000,000, chiefly of native, nomadic Arab tribes. The countries and political divisions of the Arabian peninsula are: Aden, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Trucial Oman, Yemen, and Bahrein Islands.

The situation in the Arab lands did not undergo any major changes during 1939, but general world unrest was not without exercising its influence upon Arabia. The largest part of the Arabian peninsula, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, continued its slow progress under the leadership of King Ibn Saud.

Standard Oil Concession.

An oil concession covering the entire kingdom was granted to the Standard Oil Company of California. The King received for the concession an immediate payment of $1,500,000 in gold. He is to receive $750,000 yearly during the years of exploration and prospecting. As soon as oil production begins, he will be entitled to royalties which will increase with production. The Standard Oil Company had previously held a concession in El Hasa, King Ibn Saud's province on the Persian Gulf. The new concession was received against fierce competition by Japanese, Germans and Italians. This very important concession increased America's interest in the Arabian peninsula. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was officially recognized by the United States, and the United States Minister to Egypt was also accredited to King Ibn Saud. The Standard Oil Company first struck oil in the El Hasa province in satisfactory quantities early in 1938. The prospects of important oil fields in Saudi Arabia seem very good. The resulting royalties will be of considerable importance to the financial strength of the Arabian Kingdom, and will enable the King to realize his intention of forming an army on modern lines.

Arabs in Palestine.

A certain unrest was noticeable in the first half of 1939 in the Arabic principalities along the Persian Gulf. These principalities are of strategic importance, as they form air bases for the protection of the British air lines to India and Australia. King Ibn Saud as well as the Kingdom of Iraq tried to exercise a growing influence in these principalities. Especially Kuwait, in the northwestern corner of the Persian Gulf, became the center of the rival ambitions of the two large Arabic kingdoms. But in spite of their rivalries for hegemony in Arabia, all Arab countries were united in their fight for the rights of Arabs in Palestine. The British Government recognized officially the fundamental interests of the Arab States in the fate and destiny of Palestine. Accordingly, the representatives of these states were invited to participate in the Round Table Conference in London in February 1939, and their advice was sought by the British Government. All states with large Arabic populations — Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Yemen and Egypt — participated in these conferences and were represented partly by princes of the royal houses, and partly by members of the cabinets. (See also PALESTINE; RELIGION: Jews.)

Arabs in Trans-Jordan.

The Arab state of Trans-Jordan, which forms part of the British mandated territory of Palestine but which had been constituted sixteen years ago as an independent state under British protection amended its treaty with Great Britain in a way which gave freer scope to the native legislative and executive powers. Great Britain promised also to increase her annual grant to the Trans-Jordanian treasury. The Trans-Jordanian army is to be enlarged and modernized, and the country received the right to maintain its own consulates in the neighboring Arab countries. (See also TRANS-JORDAN.)

International Relations.

The international situation at the end of the year found the Arabic lands in general sympathy with the western democracies and their war aims. Although the Arabs were in no way in agreement with British and much less even with French policy in the Near and Middle East, nevertheless, they preferred by far cooperation with Great Britain and France to the danger of falling under Italian or German domination and seeing their lands subject to colonization by Italian or German immigrants. The conclusion of Turkey's treaty with Great Britain and France facilitated Arab determination to side with the democracies in the European War which started in September 1939. See also IRAQ; SAUDI ARABIA.

1938: Arabia

The peninsula of Arabia is mostly desert and largely inhabited by nomadic tribes. Most of its area is ruled over by King Ibn Saud whose kingdom, Saudi Arabia, comprises all the land except the southwest corner of Arabia, where the Kingdom of Yemen under Imam Yehya includes some of the most fertile parts of the peninsula, and the southern and southeastern shore regions where a number of native princes hold sway under a British protectorate.

Modernization.

During 1938 the process of gradual modernization which Ibn Saud had introduced in his kingdom continued systematically. With the help of an Egyptian air transportation company a regular air service was instituted between Egypt and the holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina. Pilgrim travel was helped by the installation in Saudi Arabia of modern water supply systems and modern hospitalization facilities. The educational system of the country was enlarged with the help of teachers from Egypt, Syria and Iraq. A number of native students were also sent to Egypt and other Arabic-speaking lands, and to Europe for the purpose of higher education. Oil borings were carried on in different parts of the peninsula. The concessions granted to American and British concerns were expected to yield the necessary funds to allow a more rapid modernization of the country. A similar process, although in a more conservative spirit, also went on in Yemen.

Neighboring Principalities.

The frontier between Yemen and the British protectorates around Aden, which had been in dispute for many years, was finally demarcated. The British Government increased its hold on the small Arabic principalities on the southern shore of the peninsula, the Hadramaut region. The principalities on the southeastern shore, which for many years have been in treaty relations with Great Britain, gained in importance because the British air route to India passes across them. Modern airports were erected. Oil concessions granted during the last years, especially in Kuweit and on the Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf, began to be worked.

Effect of Anglo-Italian Pact.

The pact concluded between Great Britain and Italy in April, 1938, which went into effect in November, also regulated the influence of the two countries in Arabia. Long before the World War Great Britain had tried to secure a preponderant influence in the peninsula which it regarded as an important link on the road to India. The development of automobile and air traffic and the discovery of oil, increased the strategic value of the otherwise economically barren land. The outcome of the World War seemed to make secure British control of the peninsula and of the seas surrounding it, especially of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In the late twenties Italy tried to get a foothold on the Arabian peninsula by extending her influence with the Imam of Yemen and by entering into a number of agreements with him. The territory of the Imam surrounds Aden, the important British stronghold guarding the exit from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. In her war against Ethiopia Italy tried to strengthen her grip on the African shore of the southern part of the Red Sea, opposite Yemen. Against Italian efforts to control Yemen, Great Britain tried to establish closer relations with King Ibn Sand and to strengthen her influence in Aden and Hadramaut. In the Anglo-Italian Pact the interests of the two Powers in the Red Sea were recognized. Both parties agreed not to conclude any treaty and not to undertake any action which could in any way compromise the independence or the integrity of Saudi Arabia or of Yemen. They promised not to try to obtain a privileged position of a political nature in those two territories. They promised to cooperate in excluding any other Power from gaining political influence or a foothold in the territories of Ibn Saud or of the Imam, or in any of the islands of the Red Sea. In general it may be said that by this treaty Great Britain acknowledged the equal rights of Italy in the Red Sea and in the Arabian peninsula, a momentous departure from previous British policy which had regarded the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf as spheres of exclusively British concern.

Interest in Palestine Controversy.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia continued in close treaty relations with Iraq and with Yemen. These treaties were intended as a nucleus of an Arab federation including all Arab lands. In pursuance of this Pan Arab policy the governments of Saudi Arabia and Yemen continued their active interest in the Palestinian question. Both were invited by the British Government to participate in the round-table conference of British, Jews and Arabs, which was to convene at the beginning of 1939 in London to discuss the future of Palestine. The representatives of King Ibn Saud had intervened previously in London on behalf of the Arabs in Palestine. In view of the strictly religious character of his country, which not only includes the holy cities of Islam but also is ruled by the Wahhabis, the most rigorous sect of Islam, Ibn Saud stressed not only the Arabic national, but also the Mohammedan religious interest in Palestine. A similar attitude was taken by Imam Yehya of Yemen.

Internally, the year 1938 continued the reign of peace and order in the peninsula. Ibn Saud has succeeded in eradicating the age-old habit of permanent feud and warfare which formerly characterized life in Arabia. Thus the year 1938 brought to Arabia a further consolidation of its international and internal position. See also PALESTINE.