1942: Turkey

Turkey, on the border of Europe and Asia, occupies one of the most strategic positions in the present war. It is situated at the crossroads of the German, Russian and British spheres of action and defense. Therefore its policy is a chief concern of Germany as well as of the United Nations. From the beginning Turkey has been most interested in the preservation of peace and of decent standards of government. She concluded therefore an alliance with Great Britain and France, an alliance aimed against German expansion and against the spread of national socialism. But Germany's great victories in 1940 and especially her conquest of the Balkan peninsula in 1941, which disposed of a well-trained and well-officered but poorly equipped army without many of the modern mechanical weapons of war, induced Turkey to follow a more cautious policy of neutrality and to try to establish a modus vivendi with Germany, yet remaining at the same time faithful to her alliance with Great Britain. Turkey's position was made more difficult by her suspicion of the Soviet Union's alleged wish to annex Constantinople and the Straits. Though Turkey and the Soviet Union had been united by a close friendship for almost twenty years, these good relations had been broken after 1938 by the tortuous and annexational policy which the Soviet Union followed, arousing deep suspicions in all her neighbors, especially Turkey and Iran. Frequent reports were spread from Berlin that the Soviet Union intended an expansion in the Middle East towards the Persian Gulf and India, an expansion which would have threatened the independence and territorial integrity of Turkey. Later on, after Germany had attacked the Soviet Union, and Great Britain and the Soviet Union had concluded an alliance, Berlin propaganda maintained that Great Britain had given the Soviet Union a free hand in Eastern Europe and in Turkey, and that the two powers had come to an agreement at the expense of Turkey.

Relations with the Soviet Union.

The diplomacy of the United Nations during 1942 worked hard to improve the relations between Turkey and the Soviet Union and thus to maintain Turkey's confidence in, and loyalty to, the cause of Great Britain and the United Nations. The British Ambassador to Ankara, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugesson, on his return from Moscow in January 1942, issued a statement that the Soviet Union had no designs upon Turkey and that German reports repeating that Britain had sold out Europe east of the Rhine to Russia and had agreed to Russia's control of the Dardanelles, were childish and fantastic. He assured the Turks that respect for their territorial integrity and neutrality was a guiding principle of British and Russian policy. The appointment of the former United States Ambassador to Moscow, Laurence A. Steinhardt, as American Ambassador to Ankara, was very well received in Turkey where his presence rendered valuable services later on to bring about a renewed understanding between the Soviet Union and Turkey.

But at the beginning of 1942 relations with Soviet Russia were subjected to a serious strain. On Feb. 2, a mysterious attempt was made upon the life of Franz von Papen, the German Ambassador to Turkey, who escaped unhurt. The Turkish police suspected that persons connected with the attempt had found refuge in the Soviet legation. The Turkish police surrounded the Soviet consulate in Istanbul and raided nondiplomatic Soviet offices in Ankara. A complete break in Turkish-Soviet relations was averted only by the willingness of the Soviet representative to surrender the suspected persons. On July 17 two Russians allegedly involved in the throwing of the bomb were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment.

But as the year went on, relations between the Soviet Union and Turkey improved. By the end of 1942 the Soviet Ambassador Sergei Vinogradoff had become again persona grata. That was partly due to the efforts not only of the British but also of Mr. Steinhardt and of Mr. Wendell L. Willkie, who spent several days in Turkey on the world-tour which took him to Russia and to China. They succeeded in dispelling Turkish mistrust of Russia's postwar ambitions.

Armed Neutrality.

This improvement in the relations between the Soviet Union and Turkey was only a link in the more and more outspoken alignment of Turkey on the side of the United Nations. Factors contributing to this development were the growing strength of the United Nations, especially of Great Britain, Turkey's ally, the great British victories in the Near East, the successful resistance of the Soviet armies, and the great progress made in American armament. With British and American help Turkey was able to equip her army with the necessary modern weapons, so that she was prepared to meet any violation of her territorial integrity. In November 1942 the inability of the German army to capture Stalingrad and Baku and the great British victory over Marshal Rommel's army in Egypt seemed to increase the danger of a German invasion. The President of Turkey, Gen. Ismet Inönü, opened a session of the Turkish parliament on Nov. 1, with a declaration that 'Turkey is closer to war today than at any other time since the present world conflict started.' Characteristically he pointed out that the great German ambition of world domination could not be realized. 'With the war spread over every quarter of the globe, one begins to understand that political institutions founded on domination by a single power cannot be maintained.' He defined as Turkey's aim, freedom for every nation, big and small, loyalty to her alliances and friendships, and adherence to her policy of neutrality. Turkey's neutrality and readiness to defend herself against any German attempt to march through Turkey, was of utmost strategic importance to the United Nations. Her firm policy of watchful, armed neutrality was strengthened by assurances from the United States of an active interest in Turkey's security and independence and her postwar development. Turkey was not only made eligible for American supplies under the lend-lease arrangement, but also received preferred treatment. Her firm position on the side of the United Nations protected the rear of the British position in the Middle East and of the Russian position in the Caucasus.

An important change in the Turkish cabinet happened when on July 8 the Prime Minister, Dr. Refik Saydam, died suddenly of a heart attack. He had become Prime Minister in 1939. Foreign Minister Sukru Saracoglu became his successor as Prime Minister. He was well known for his sympathy with the democratic cause, and his friendship with the Russian ambassador also facilitated rapprochement with the Soviet Union. The Turkish National Assembly on Aug. 5 passed a unanimous vote of confidence in the new cabinet. In his first broadcast the new Premier declared: 'If our territory should be attacked, we should fight to the last man. That is why we keep a strong army ever ready.' On Aug. 13 the former Minister of Justice Numan Menemenioglu was appointed Foreign Minister.

Relations with Germany.

With Germany controlling all the trade routes in Europe and with the difficulty experienced by Great Britain and the United States in delivering goods to Turkey, that country was forced to do a considerable part of her trade with Germany. Yet it is noteworthy that Germany failed repeatedly to deliver important heavy goods to Turkey, while Great Britain continued to deliver locomotives, freight cars and war equipment on schedule and in addition made unscheduled deliveries of wheat to offset a bad Turkish harvest. Germany excused her failure by pointing out that rail-traffic through the Balkans had been frequently interrupted by the destruction of bridges and the need of other repair. One of the most important products of Turkey is chromium which is essential for the manufacture of war material. Until Jan. 15, 1943, the British had by agreement a monopoly on all Turkish chromium which is to be exported, so until then Germany would not be able to obtain any. In September 1942 Turkey concluded an agreement with Germany, according to which, beginning with Jan. 15, 1943, half of the Turkish output of chrome, 45,000 tons yearly, will go to the German Krupp armament factories. But before the shipping of chromium is started Germany must deliver to Turkey assorted ordnance to the value of 18,000,000 Turkish pounds. Should Germany succeed in this, the United States and Great Britain would have to depend on chromium supplied from Africa to cover their own needs.

Internal Affairs.

The Turkish parliament adopted a law of national protection which was aimed at conserving staple foods, eliminating speculation in foodstuffs and tightening police regulations to stamp out fifth column activity. Prices have risen sharply despite efforts to regulate them; war time profiteering and hoarding have increased the difficulties. The first measures of rationing were introduced at the beginning of 1942. The first article to be rationed was bread, each person receiving 375 grams daily and workers doing heavy work, a double ration. Special attention was paid to railroad construction. Turkey wished to construct railways completing the links connecting Turkey with Iran and Iraq, and thus facilitating not only strategic ties with the British and Soviet armies, but also the moving of goods and supplies from the Persian Gulf to Ankara and Istanbul.