1942: Merchant Marine, American

War Zone Operation.

The American Merchant Marine took a decisive part in the struggle against the Axis Powers during the first twelve months after Pearl Harbor. Construction and operation of supply ships for the unprecedented demands of global transportation became one of the most vital factors for success not only of the United States but of every nation aiding the Allied cause.

Hundreds of thousands of fresh troops had to be transported to theaters of war in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, Alaska. From six to fifteen tons of equipment were shipped with every fighting man, depending upon his type of service. Forces already in the field had to be supplied with food and with armaments that were beginning to roll with increasing volume from America's gigantic war industries. Raw materials, such as nitrates, magnesium, jute, and bauxite, had to be imported to supply these industries. It was necessary, meanwhile, to maintain trade with the republics of Latin America, in spite of the encroachment of war upon our very shoreline.

Every ship capable of deep-sea service was shifted from normal to war zone operation. Construction of new vessels was expanded and speeded. Close surveillance of cargo movements was instituted so that every cubic foot of valuable shipping space would be utilized to the best possible advantage. As the demands of the armed forces were intensified, a sharp reduction became necessary in the movement of goods and articles for civilian use. American homes began to go on a war footing when these shortages resulted in the rationing of oil, sugar, and coffee.

With a vast army being transported to military bases all over the world, with civilians adjusting themselves to new conditions, and industry being fully converted to war production, the future of all three depended, as never before in our history, upon the men and ships of the Merchant Marine.

Shipbuilding Program.

Five years ago, after a long period of neglect, the United States had the poorest merchant fleet of the six leading maritime nations. The rebuilding of this fleet was begun with the establishment of the U. S. Maritime Commission by the Merchant Marine Act of 1936.

A shipbuilding program calling for 50 vessels a year for 10 years, to replace over-age vessels, was initiated by the Commission. Delivery of the first ships began in 1939, but as the tremors of war reached America from across two oceans, the shipbuilding program was doubled time and time again until, by the end of 1941, orders had been placed for more than 1,200 steel ships totaling 12,000,000 deadweight tons, to be completed during the two-year period 1942-43.

With the actual outbreak of hostilities, shipping requirements were resurveyed and the already accelerated program was expanded twofold. Early in 1942, two successive additions of 6,000,000 deadweight tons each were made to the shipbuilding effort. By April 2, less than four months after Pearl Harbor, the Maritime Commission had awarded contracts for 2,300 cargo ships aggregating 24,000,000 deadweight tons, of which 8,000,000 tons were scheduled for delivery during 1942, and 16,000,000 tons in 1943. Construction of more than 1,000 special-purpose smaller craft, such as harbor and ocean-going tugs, barges, tankers and dry-cargo vessels for coastal use, was also authorized. These are not included in the deadweight tonnage total.

At the close of 1942 the first year's goal of 8,000,000 tons had been achieved, and out of a total of 3,600 vessels of all types contracted for, approximately 1,200 had been delivered.

Types of Ships.

The original program had been devoted largely to modern, high-speed, dry-cargo vessels and tankers. Several types of cargo carriers developed by the Maritime Commission for service on different trade routes are the finest merchant ships afloat. Propelled by turbines and gears, and a reasonable number of Diesels, equipped with the latest cargo-handling gear and safety apparatus, 500 of these fast ships would give America the competitive superiority in world shipping sought by the Merchant Marine Act of six years ago.

The Liberty Ship, of standardized design and simplified construction, was adopted as the best type for rapid building in the shipyards which were constructed along our coasts to meet wartime needs. It is of basic British design, modified and adapted to speed up production methods formulated in America. Nearly 1,600 of these 10,500-ton vessels were ordered and by the end of 1942 about 500 were in service. Also under construction are 500 C-type ships and several hundred tankers (the Commission's standard types).

Because the production of turbines and gears was limited by time, facilities and materials, Liberty Ships were provided with triple-expansion reciprocating engines of 2,500 horsepower. Ample facilities existed in the country to supply these engines in the numbers required by the program. Subsequently, production of these and of turbine machinery was increased at a number of inland plants to keep pace with the rapid construction of hulls at the shipyards. Liberty Ships will have their speed increased and they may be turbo-driven as soon as an increase in gear production permits the change. A modified design is well under way.

In January 1942 Liberty Ships were turned out in an average 241 days from keel-laying to delivery. By October the average construction time had been reduced to 66 days. Production of ships of all types rose steadily almost month by month. In January the shipbuilders delivered 16 vessels, in February, 26; March, 26; April, 36; May, 57; June, 67; July, 71; August, 68; September, 93; October, 81. The decline in October occurred because some yards were diverted to construction of special-type vessels for the armed forces.

Speed-up in Production.

Factors which contributed most to the speed-up in production were the extensive substitution of welding for riveting, and the prefabrication of large sections. Standardization is the keystone of the arch. Vessels were no longer built plate by plate, but literally assembled section by section. An entire forepeak, bulkhead or deckhouse would be welded at the fabrication shop, swung into place by powerful cranes, and then welded to the hull. With such innovations, shipbuilders were able to approximate the assembly-line methods employed in the automobile industry.

The shipbuilding facilities of America were expanded 600 per cent to accomplish the program. In October 1937, when the Maritime Commission let its first contract, the industry consisted of 10 shipyards with but 46 ways large enough to build ocean-going vessels 400 feet in length or more. Even with naval construction occupying half of these facilities, the meager interest in shipbuilding which had prevailed in America for the previous fifteen years failed to keep the remainder of the yards busy.

At the beginning of 1943, when production mounted to four ships a day, over 60 shipyards with more than 300 ways were building merchant ships for the Maritime Commission. Seventeen of these yards with over 130 ways were engaged solely in Liberty Ship construction. The bulk of these facilities had been brought into being after March 1941. In order to tap as many sources of labor and materials as possible, the yards were scattered along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf Coasts, and on the Great Lakes.

Employment figures leaped from the low of 70,000 workers in 1937 to more than 500,000 by the end of 1942. A full million was expected at the shipyards by the time the peak of production in 1943 is reached. Thousands of additional workers are employed at many contributing plants scattered throughout 36 states, which are manufacturing marine equipment and accessories for assembly at the shipyards.

War Shipping Administration.

The expanding American Merchant Marine was placed under the control of the War Shipping Administration when that agency was established by Executive Order of President Roosevelt on Feb. 7, 1942. Broad powers over the operation, purchase, charter, maintenance, and requisition of all ocean vessels (with a few exceptions) under the flag or control of the United States, were assigned to the Administrator. The use of these vessels, the President's Order declared, 'shall comply with strategic military requirements.' The agency was created as part of the executive branch of the Government and the Administrator is directly responsible to the President.

Training of Crews.

The training program to provide adequate crews for the wartime merchant fleet was also placed under the War Shipping Administration. Facilities on shore were expanded and additional training ships were put in service to school the 30,000 officers and 100,000 seamen needed to man the new ships.

Three United States Merchant Marine Academies and five state academies, supported in part by Federal funds, are giving intensified courses to cadets training for deck and engine officer licenses. Because of the emergency, the course has been cut from three years to sixteen months. After a basic course on shore, the trainees spend six to eight months as cadet officers on a merchant ship in actual operation. Approximately 5,000 cadets were in training at the close of 1942.

The War Shipping Administration also operates seven training stations for unlicensed ships personnel. Four stations give a three-month course for apprentice seamen, another station trains radio operators in six months, and two stations are for experienced seamen who wish to study for an officer's rating. Cooks and bakers are also trained.

The Recruitment and Manning Organization of the War Shipping Administration makes surveys of crew requirements at all ports, and places the cadets and seamen aboard ship as they finish their training. In addition, this agency is conducting a registration drive to induce older or retired seamen to return to sea duty.