1941: Negroes, American

Chief emphasis by Negroes during 1941 was of necessity put upon the task of breaking down discrimination in the earning of a living. The Congress of the United States appropriated vast sums for defense. The bulk of the $78,000,000,000 voted was spent through contracts given to private employers. Many of these, for reasons of prejudice or timidity, or both, refused employment to Negroes irrespective of their qualifications. In many instances they were aided in doing this by certain A. F. of L. unions, like the International Machinists Union which through constitutional clauses, ritualistic practices, or otherwise, restricted union membership to white persons. Where such unions succeeded in obtaining closed shop agreements in plants or in otherwise controlling terms of employment, Negroes were completely barred.

The steadily rising cost of living and increase of taxes caused by the defense program and America's entry into the war near the end of the year made more acute than ever the economic problems of Negroes. These increased costs, coupled with the discriminations encountered in obtaining employment even in defense plants for whose contracts the Negro was taxed with other Americans to finance, added to the discontent. When efforts to secure a Senate investigation were blocked by certain Southern Senators, despite the fact that an overwhelming majority of the Senate had promised to vote for such an investigation, dramatic and desperate steps had to be taken by Negroes to bring to the attention of the American Government and people the nature and extent of the discrimination. The March-on-Washington, in exercise of the constitutional right of citizens to petition their government, was organized by A. Philip Randolph, President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, Walter White, Secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and others. Official Washington belatedly became galvanized into action by the threat of the march. President Roosevelt invited Messrs. Randolph and White to a conference at the White House on June 18, which was also attended by the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy, by the Directors of the Office of Production Management and the Office of Civilian Defense, and other high Government officials. Out of this conference came an Executive Order by the President banning discrimination in employment by industries holding defense contracts and by the Federal Government itself, on account of race, creed, color or national origin. The order also provided for the establishment of a Committee on Fair Employment Practice, of which Mark F. Ethridge, Editor of the Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal was named as Chairman and Lawrence W. Cramer, former Governor of the Virgin Islands, as Executive Secretary. Hearings and other activities by the committee, backed by a steadily increasing opposition to such discrimination, resulted in its discontinuance in a few industries during 1941.

The determination of Negroes and interested white Americans in settling such problems was manifested also in the taking into the courts of test cases involving disfranchisement; differentials in salaries paid to Negro and white teachers, amounting to more than $43,000,000 annually; discrimination in public transportation, and other phases. Most of these were taken into court through the instrumentality of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.

Though the Navy continued to bar Negro volunteers, except as menials, the Coast Guard and Marines continued to bar them altogether, and the Army continued to insist on Negroes serving in completely segregated units. A few indications that this rigid pattern could be successfully changed became evident during 1941. The first of these was the small but significant increase in the number of Negroes admitted to West Point, which was accomplished without public criticism or difficulty. The other was the training of Negro and white Army officers in the same Army training schools, even in the deep South. This, too, was effected without friction. William H. Hastie, brilliant Negro graduate of Amherst College and of the Harvard University Law School, served as Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War and aided materially in achieving these modest steps toward a more democratic Army.

Distinguished Negro artists, like Marian Anderson, Paul Robeson, Dorothy Maynor and Roland Hayes, continued to add to their fame through singing to huge audiences in various parts of the country. Other Negroes, inspired by the success of these, began to be heard from. Outstanding among these was Dean Dixon, brilliant young Negro orchestra conductor and Juilliard graduate, who became the first Negro and one of the first American conductors of the N.B.C. Symphony Orchestra and the New York Philharmonic at the Lewisohn Stadium.

In the field of sports a number of successful Negro fighters, like Ray Robinson, Chalky Wright, Bob Montgomery and others, moved towards the top of the prize-fighting world. Agreed upon in 1941 by all sports writers and the public as being the greatest heavy-weight who ever lived, Joe Louis defended his title successfully seven times during 1941. Early in 1942, in a fight with Buddy Baer, whom he defeated, Louis generously contributed all of his purse to the Navy Relief Fund.