1941: Military Science

With the entry of the United States into the World War in December 1941, military strategy became of vital interest and concern to the American public. When diplomatic methods fail, nations attempt to carry out their foreign policies by means of armed forces. Strategy and policy must go hand in hand. To carry out the military national policy, military means must be available. Increased speed and movement of fighting forces put the unprepared nation at a more serious disadvantage than ever before. The industries of the nation must be able to produce munitions in time for the earliest military effort, whether offensive or defensive. If the uses to be made of the armed forces have not been thought out, they may be deficient in equipment, organization and training for the tasks the war may require of them. (See also WORLD WAR II.)

Naval Strategy and Shipbuilding Program.

The British control of the sea and use of combined forces and unity of command in the eastern Mediterranean have since given them signal success. Close cooperation of all classes of forces, with ability of staff and command to adapt their plans and execution to changing condition of terrain and enemy's forces, is bound to bring best results. For an example of such planning and execution, the German successes in the first half of 1941 are outstanding.

Shipping at present governs the whole strategy of the War. The United States had agreed prior to its entry into the world conflict to give 'all aid short of war' to England, Russia and China. In addition to aiding British shipping, it was the decisive factor in preventing any German attempt to establish a permanent landing on the western coast of Africa or southern coast of Europe.

The United States and Great Britain embarked on a tremendous ship construction program; the United States program is unprecedented in the history of the world. Britain probably cannot produce over 1,750,000 tons of dead weight shipping this year or the same amount next year. The United States plans to and probably will produce 1,153 new ships or approximately 12,000,000 dead weight tons between July 1, 1941, and the end of 1943. The German submarine fleet can probably muster 160 ships; replacement is exceeding destruction to date. Planes have sunk about one-fourth of the merchant shipping lost in this war.

Britain has been able to maintain her own only in the air and on the sea. In the Battle of Britain, her planes proved their qualitative superiority; Germany is still superior in numbers. The entry of the United States into the War and the increasing help of American factories, and large German losses in Russia are speeding the probable date of American-British superiority in number of planes as well as in quality. The extended air bases of Germany compared with the contracted bases of England are a great advantage to Germany. At sea, the war of attrition has become more favorable to England. As the British and Americans produce more ships and planes, and as the United States is now scouting the North Atlantic and convoying supply ships, British losses have greatly decreased, and Germany's sea losses have correspondingly increased.

Strategically, the war has been primarily a struggle between Germany, a great continental power, and the British Empire, a great sea power. Germany has had the great benefit of interior lines thus enabling her to shift her forces quickly to any theater. England and her allies have to move slowly over long lines of ocean communication. The British Empire might produce 100 divisions against the German's 260; whereas at the peak of the first World War Britain had only 87. However, Britain's great advantage has been command of the seas.

German System of Total War.

The German Army was the creation of General Hans von Seeckt. Development in mechanical weapons, tanks and aviation resulted in a blitzkrieg war plan requiring a well trained, well equipped army of extreme mobility, capable of surprise and audacious attack. During 1941, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Crete were suddenly attacked and quickly conquered, and on June 22, Hitler scrapped the Russo-German pact and invaded the Soviet Union. The fighting in Yugoslavia and Greece showed the excellent staff work of the German Army, Fifth Column operation, the great superiority in air force, tanks and motorized troops, knowledge of the terrain and weaknesses of the enemy. It also showed the excellent training for each type of warfare given months in advance — the fine morale of the personnel. Here, strategy and tactics varied little from that used in Poland, Norway and France. The conquest of Crete was different; the tremendous German air superiority early drove the RAF from Crete and thousands of parachutists were dropped on the island. The first were 'mopped up' by the Cretans and British, but because the defenders were forced to stay in their trenches and dugouts by bombing and strafing machine gun fire, over 5,000 parachutists landed, and, with the help of troops landing from gliders and troop-carrying planes, seized the airports. Transports carrying troops were sunk or driven off by British war vessels. However, the British Navy lost heavily to dive-bombers, and finally, the remaining British force had to be evacuated, leaving much material and thousands of prisoners in German hands.

The carrying out of the German concept in the waging of war during 1941 showed remarkable consistency. Blitzkrieg is extreme rapidity of movement, surprise, and total war. External propaganda and fifth column activity, diplomatic treachery, economic pressure, totalitarian use of industry, internal propaganda to bring about in the minds of its citizens a willingness to war, a gradual diminution of living standards, the bombing of industrial centers, the annihilation of commerce by land and sea are some of the means to enforce their will on the enemy.

Another German concept in the waging of war is the utter disregard of losses in seeking a decision. Germany is rich in man power, and to her, the stressing of the offensive regardless of loss, is justified. France believed in conserving her man power.

Few so-called 'secret weapons' have been brought forth. The well known principles of war, applied in a most brilliant manner after most careful training, superb cooperation, and intelligent foresight, produced the results. Some new methods in application of these principles were adopted, the principal one being the new use of a powerful air force and of mechanized and motorized forces in cooperation with other arms. The armored force (Panzer Divisions) constituted only a comparatively small per cent of the forces used; the Infantry is still the main reliance for holding ground. The components are still auxiliary. The magnetic mine, however, was a new weapon which until the hulls of ships were degaussed or demagnetized took a heavy toll of shipping.

'Mechanized' troops use in battle the motorized material in which they arrive on the battle field. 'Motorized' troops use motor transportation, but dismount to fight. The Germans early came to the conclusion that 'the tank' was the most powerful offensive arm that could be employed in land warfare; the French did not realize its great potentialities.

The German Army, when it began the invasion of Russia in June 1941, had 8,000,000 to 10,000,000 men under arms, probably over 250 divisions of which about 30 were armored (Panzer) divisions, and altogether about 30,000 tanks and 16,000 airplanes. The Panzer Division varies according to its task, but in general is about as follows:

A Headquarters.

1 Reconnaissance battalion composed of light-armored reconnaissance cars, radio cars, motorcycle company and other mobile units.

1 Mechanized brigade of two tank regiments, both medium and light tanks (about 450 in all).

1 Brigade of motorized Infantry (2 regiments).

1 Regiment of motorized Artillery (105 mm. or 75 mm.), possibly on self-propelled armored mounts.

1 Motorized anti-tank battalion or regiment (47 mm. or 75 mm.), possibly on self-propelled armored mounts.

1 Motorized battalion of Engineers.

1 Pontoon (bridging) column, Engineers.

1 Motor Signal battalion.

1 Motorized antiaircraft-antitank regiment or battalion (20 mm., 37 mm., 88 mm. antiaircraft and artillery guns), possibly on self-propelled armored mounts.

Attached aviation.

The reconnaissance battalion is for distant and close reconnaissance; the tank brigade is for shock action; and the Infantry, with its supporting troops, is the ground holding force.

This armored division has 13,000 to 15,000 men, and about 3,000 vehicles of all classes.

Light German tanks are about 10 tons, carrying machine guns and 1 pounders.

Medium German tanks are about 20 tons, carrying machine guns and 75 mm. guns.

Heavy German tanks are about 40 tons and above, carrying heavy machine guns and 75 mm. or heavier artillery. Heavy tanks generally in reserve are used for break-through.

From reports received and various publications, the Panzer Division is used as follows: Attacking a defensive position sometimes they make the penetration and break-through themselves; at other times, the troops already engaged make the penetration, and the armored divisions come forward from concealed positions in the rear, making the break-through and continue on to exploitation and pursuit. In both cases, the penetration was made by tanks, Infantry, and Engineers, supported by Artillery and Aviation.

The general mode of attack by the Germans, having a preponderance of airplanes was that they surprised and silenced a large proportion of the enemy's airforce, bombed and attacked airdromes, railway and communication centers, bridges, enemy concentration points, batteries, command posts, and other strategic positions.

The Artillery played its part in support of the attack, either with or without artillery preparation, as the case required. Machine gunning and dive-bombing took place by aviation at the same time. The tanks, Infantry, Engineers, supported by aviation and artillery made the penetration, attacked the flanks of the penetration, attacked the enemy reserves and protected the flanks of the armored force that moves on and advances deep into the enemy's country; and assisted by aviation, attacks the enemy in the rear, further rolling up his flanks, captures towns, bridges, telephone centrals, strong points and holds back enemy reinforcements. The armored force hold until the motorized Infantry and Artillery take over, to be relieved still later by foot troops and horse artillery; the motorized units then moving forward, repeating the operation. The Panzer Division, after passing through the gap made for it in the enemy's line, proceeded to do the job for which it was organized, namely, exploitation and pursuit. The German armored divisions are 'imbued with an impetuous determination to defeat the enemy and pursue him to destruction.'

The Panzer Division is a self-contained unit with all the arms and services in numbers sufficient to take care of itself for some days; but, like the air service, it cannot hold its captures indefinitely and requires motorized infantry and artillery to take over until the foot troops and horse artillery relieves and holds.

In attacking fortified zones and positions, combat engineers are used to clear mine fields and barriers. Smoke screens are extensively used. Turrets and cupolas are assaulted with high velocity antitank guns and heavy machine guns so as to hit the portholes. Mine throwers, grenades and mortars were employed. All combinations depended on the nature of the operations and the terrain. Flame throwers are used under cover of artillery and machine gun fire. Engineers blasted the doors, and detonated powerful explosives on top of fortifications.

In addition to their antitank guns, which were excellent, the Germans had an armored assault gun on fast moving caterpillar tracks. The frontal armor slabs were much heavier than a tank's armor. Its 105 mm. howitzer knocked out pill boxes point blank. Its crew, heavily armed with machine guns, protected it from ambush, then rushed forward to mop up the pill box.

Owing chiefly to German signal forces, the coordinated shock operations of Army, Navy, Air Force as well as various columns, Headquarters and components of task forces (i.e., infantry, artillery, tanks, air force) attained a high level of effective synchronization. During swift offensive action, contact between leaders and troops is difficult, but the trained and organized signal units handle the problem well.

In a German division of about 14,000 men, 500 are assigned to the division communication group. These are additional to infantry and artillery internal communication. Close to the front reliance is placed more upon radio than telephone. Preference for the radio is even more marked in the infantry than in the artillery. For rapid circulation of orders, an independent net of radio communication is superimposed upon the normal tactical nets. The second net is used exclusively for combat orders and provides receiving equipment only for those who are to receive orders. Information and administrative instructions are circulated, by relays if necessary, over the regular tactical nets. For field telephone, the German Army uses a portable local battery telephone built in a bakelite case. Only at Division Headquarters is found a desk telephone.

The special cable supplied for use in crossing rivers is an important item of the division communication equipment. In addition, an 'optic telephone' is provided which permits gaps in the wire to be bridged by modulated beams of light; it has a line of sight range of about 5 kilometers and is operated by means of modulated bands of light with the aid of a vibrating mirror and a selenium cell. It can be spliced to wire or cables.

The Infantry has radio transmitters and receivers covering the wave band from 21 to 30 megacycles. This equipment is light-weight, portable and suitable for use on reconnaissance patrols and during an attack. The higher command is responsible for the circuits to subordinate commands or units, and that sufficient personnel are assigned in order that wire connection is guaranteed. Communication between artillery and infantry is very important. If an artillery unit is placed under infantry command, the infantry commanding officer is responsible for communication through his signal resources. When a situation is moving very rapidly radio in the clear may be used where the enemy can get little important information.

Tanks.

The quality of German armaments was generally good. However, the armor plate was not always of the best, joints cracked easily and tracks did not stand up very well. While the armor steel was relatively inferior, the armor was hard to penetrate, for the plates were set at such angles that many projectiles glanced off. Observation and communication equipment was excellent. Some models had power operated turrets, periscopes, and smoke screen equipment. In the newer production, self-sealing fuel tanks and fireproof walls between crew and engine compartments were installed. Collective anti-gas protection featured certain types. The great strength of the German tank arm lay in its numbers. Emphasis had been on producing large quantities rather than a smaller number of technically more perfect tanks. Homogeneous armor plate, for example, was cheaper and easier to make in quantity than the more resistant face hardened plate. When it was discovered certain tanks were very vulnerable to antitank fire, their surfaces were reinforced by riveting extra plates over the parts subjected to heavy fire. Improved models are being designed and manufactured. Some French and Czech tanks are used.

The Germans seem to classify their tanks not by weight, but by fire power. A 'light' tank is one equipped only with machine guns. The PZ Kw II, is a light tank; 9 tons, crew of 3, maximum armor 20 mm. armament, 1 heavy and 1 light machine gun. Maximum road speed 24 m.p.h. Radius of action, 125 miles.

PZ Kw III. Medium tank, weight 18 tons; crew of 5, maximum armor 40 mm. (1.6 in.). Armament: 1-37 mm. or 50 mm. gun, 2 light machine guns; maximum road speed, 28 m.p.h.

PZ Kw IV. Heavy medium, weight 22 tons; crew 5, maximum armor 2.4 in.; armament, 1 75 mm. gun, 2 light machine guns; maximum road speed, 23 m.p.h.

PZ Kw V. Heavy tank; weight 32 tons; crew, 7; maximum armor 60 mm. armament, 1 75 mm. and 1 37 mm., or 1 75 mm. and 4 machine guns.

PZ Kw VII. Super heavy; weight 90 tons; crew 18; maximum armor, 90 mm. armament, 1 105 mm. gun, 2 47 mm. guns; 4 machine guns; maximum road speed, 18 m.p.h. Radius action, 16 hours. Many light and some medium tanks have been converted into anti-tank and assault artillery weapon carriers. The super heavy type does not seem to have been issued in quantity. The Germans have several types of amphibian tanks useful for reconnaissance and establishing bridge heads.

The Souna S35 Medium tank, Ex. French, weight 18 tons; crew of 3; armor 40 mm.; armed, 1 47 mm. gun, 1 light machine gun; speed 29 m.p.h.; radius 140 miles, is an excellent tank.

The Russians found the German tanks were better armored in front than on the sides and when practicable attacked them on the flank.

Terrain influences greatly the nature and direction of tank attack; it is preferable that tank units advance over favorable ground than that their movements be coordinated with other arms over difficult terrain. Obstacles slow down tanks and may rob the attack of surprise. Careful reconnaissance by every available means including, possibly, personal air reconnaissance by the tank commander is essential. Obstacles are removed by the supporting elements; mines removed by the Engineers; a river barrier surmounted by establishing a bridgehead by Infantry and Engineers. Tank movement takes place preferably at night.

The supporting air force must be under command of the armored force leader. Air reconnaissance plays an important role before and during an attack, helping locate feasible routes for the tanks, enemy concentrations and movements, anti-tank and artillery emplacements.

Air Strategy.

Air power has been tried in every conceivable method by all combatants. Its most useful application has been in conjunction with surface forces for the achievement of tactical and strategic ends. One point fundamental to air strategy, however, is the strategic immobility of air forces. Lack of bases hampered German air operations in Norway — then acquisition of these bases gained success for the Germans. Tactically the most mobile of armed power within its radius of action from an established base, air power is strategically immobile — dependent on others for establishing and protecting its bases. The German land-air combination in Poland and France brought them their greatest victories. In Crete, when German troop planes and gliders made spectacular landings of parachute troops upon the island, the latter were at first overwhelmed by the British and Cretan forces, and British air and naval units beat off or destroyed any German troopships attempting to land. It was not until the German bombers got into action and destroyed the British air bases and bombed their naval vessels, that the British warships, fighting without air support, were sunk or scattered and the Germans scored the final victory. (See also AVIATION.)

German success lay in a military organization properly balanced to use the most modern weapons most effectively with coordination of all arms. The German soldier is well-disciplined, inured to the most severe exertions and trained to exercise individual initiative. Germany replaced most of its cavalry by tanks and mechanized troops. German strategists decided that planes were of great use in direct support of Infantry operations and evolved the Stuka dive-bomber for that purpose.

Germany remodeled hundreds of old bombers to transport infantry and parachutist troops. Trained parachute troops were most successfully used in the Low Countries and in the Crete campaign, but were found not very successful against the Russians who were better prepared than the earlier enemies.

The German air force had generally surprised its enemies and destroyed many planes on the ground, giving it and the army an immense initial success. Pitted against the Russians, it was not so successful; the Russians had distributed their air fields and camouflaged them very effectively. The Russian air force proved much larger than the Germans had expected and of much better quality. The late German bombers are the Junker-87 dive-bomber, the Heinkel-111, the Junker-88 medium bomber, and the Dornier long-distance reconnaissance and bombing plane. Among its most modern fighters are the Henschel (Hs-123) observation plane; the Messerschmitt-109 (most used); the Heinkel (He-112); the Focke Wulff Destroyer; the Heinkel (He-115), all purpose seaplane; and the Messerschmitt-110, latest fighter.

The Russian air force was trained in close support operations with the Russian mechanized land forces rather than long-range strategic bombing. For that reason most of the newer Russian bombers, such as the DB-3A, approximate the American attack bomber such as Douglas DB-7 and the NA40C, instead of the larger four-motored types with which the Russian Air Force was predominantly equipped some years ago. The dive-bomber had been developed somewhat like the German Junker-87. Fighters and ground attack single-seaters formed the bulk of the squadrons. The chief types in action in the Soviet airforce at present appear to be:

Fighters: The 1-153, single-seat biplane (1,000 h.p. M 63 radial motor).

The 1-21, two-seat, low wing monoplane (engines 2-1300 h.p., Tompolevs; speed 400 m.p.h.; armament, two 20 mm. cannon, 6 machine guns).

The 1-17, single-seat, low-wing monoplane (1,100 h.p. M 100 liquid cooled Vee-motor).

Bombers: TB-3, low-wing monoplane (four 830 h.p. M 34, liquid cooled Vee-Motors).

An attack bomber, designed for close cooperation with Russian land forces and short-range bombing is the SB-2 (ANT-40) twin-motored monoplane something like our Martin-139.

Reconnaissance: RZ single motored biplane.

R-10 (vultee V-11-GB) single motor monoplane.

Seaplanes: MBR-2 (Macchie. 94) twin-motor flying boat.

PBY (Consolidated), twin-motor flying boat.

The DF (Douglas), twin-motor flying boat.

Most Russian types have been developed from those built in foreign countries — the United States, Germany, Italy and France. The 1-15 Chato biplane is based on the Curtiss Sparrowhawk, and has 1,000 h.p. M 63 Radial like the Wright Cyclone built under license. The latest 1-18 Russian fighter resembles the Spitfire. Reports from Russia speak of a new heavily-armed fighter of top speed over 400 m.p.h.

Two new twin-motor bomber monoplanes are now in the service. DB3 and DB3A — top speed 265 m.p.h.; maximum bomb load, 4,400 lbs.; crew of 3 or 4, with 3 machine guns.

The backbone of Moscow defense is the 'Stormovik,' a twin-engined plane, with high speed, heavy armor and equipped with a motor cannon and many machine guns. They carry bombs, serve the double purpose of fighter planes and dive-bombers, and are especially effective against tanks.

Virtually all of Russia's twenty odd aircraft factories, mostly concentrated around Moscow, were still beyond German reach. Leningrad with its three airplane factories still held out.

Russo-German Front.

The general Soviet plan for the winter included:

(1) Hold the front as far west as was feasible to enable the organization and training of new armies in the interior.

(2) Expand the industries east of the Volga River and behind the Ural Mountains.

(3) Start new factories in these districts, especially utilizing equipment brought from the West.

(4) Obtain all possible material aid from Britain and the United States.

(5) Expand guerrilla warfare behind the German lines in the territory held by the Nazis.

(6) Cooperate with the British Royal Air Force in hammering from the air German factories and supply centers.

(7) Concentrate Soviet production on tanks, antitank guns, airplanes, anti-aircraft guns and artillery.

The Russians had been preparing for war for twenty years and were not inferior to the Germans in man power or quantity of material. Russia had no Fifth Column. The Russian soldiers fight and die as well as the Germans. The Russians, however, seemed at first inferior in organization and officer leadership.

Up to the attack on Russia, Germany, in land and air power, possessed overwhelming superiority over her opponents. Weaknesses of her enemies, political, economic and psychological, were exploited by Fifth Column measures and the strategy of terror as well as military means. When she attacked Russia, Germany found something new — an enemy prepared against Fifth Columnists and equipped with vast numbers of tanks and planes. At the beginning of the Russian campaign, Germany mustered at least 260 divisions, in addition to more than 100 Italian, Hungarian, Rumanian and Finnish divisions.

Russian morale was exceedingly good. The greatest danger the Soviets faced was the serious loss of material and industrial plants. British and American help had to be immediate and great to enable the Russians to stem the offensive into which the Germans poured great quantities of mechanized equipment. Entering the war with possibly 3,000 tanks, Russia lost probably two-thirds, captured or destroyed. The Russian strategy was to hold Moscow at all costs, falling back slowly, if necessary, in other sectors, to avoid disintegration of the Red Armies, remove factory equipment and carry out the 'scorched earth' policy in regions evacuated.

The announced German policy was to destroy the armies rather than to seize cities or territory. Their encircling tactics caused great losses to the Russian Armies, but the strong opposition of the Russian troops caused proportionately heavy losses to the Germans. The loss of possibly 1,500,000 men by the Germans as against 4,000,000 Russians in prisoners and casualties was not vital numerically, but the German casualties were their best troops and for that reason more serious than the number would indicate. Germany also suffered heavy losses in air strength, again among her best planes and pilots. Germany's airplane industry was reported to be retooling and soon is expected to be producing newer planes in large quantity. Thus any claim of numerical equality by the Allies may be premature, although America's production of newer type planes is rapidly increasing, and equality or superiority in the near future is probable.

The Germans modified the break-through tactics used against other nations: They sent tanks supported by their Luftwaffe, followed by motorized infantry and foot troops through the enemy's line; after the spearhead penetrated for some distance behind the enemy's line, it curved back and struck at the broken line, making a break-through from the rear, thus encircling enemy forces in a series of pockets. These tactics were not always successful but nevertheless proved their value at Smolensk, Kiev and elsewhere.

The German campaign against the Soviet was complicated by the Russian winter. In this campaign, both the Germans and Russians used nearly all the material and tactics known to man. The Germans met for the first time mass strength in men and equipment of certain types numerically equal or superior to their own. The quality of Russian planes and tanks also surprised the Nazis. The Russians produced three-decker tanks weighing 130 tons; the first deck for flame throwers, the second for 75 mm. guns, the third for antiaircraft guns.

Leningrad and Moscow, however, held out, and the Red Army was not annihilated. In the great Russian counter-offensive which began in December 1941, the Germans received their first major military defeat of the entire war, being pushed back and routed week after week in battles of gigantic dimensions all along a 1,000-mile front from Leningrad to Rostov. Thus by the beginning of 1942, Adolf Hitler himself had acknowledged for the first time that the German army faced an enemy superior in numbers and in equipment. (See WORLD WAR II.)

The superior German tank strategy had reduced the number of Russian tanks by nearly two-thirds, while the tanks captured by the Germans, and those manufactured, probably left them nearly the number they originally had, approximately 30,000. That was, however, until the Russian counter-offensive at the close of 1941, when an enormous amount of Nazi tanks and other mechanized equipment was destroyed by slashing Russian attacks or rendered useless by the severity of the Russian winter.

UNITED STATES

Foreign Policy.

The foreign policy of the United States was expressed by President Roosevelt thus:

'It is to defend the honor, the freedom, the rights, the interests and the well-being of the American people. We seek no gain at the expense of others. We threaten no one nor do we tolerate threats from others. No nation is more deeply dedicated to the ways of peace; no nation is fundamentally stronger to resist aggression.

'The real end, the inescapable end of American foreign policy is the destruction of the Hitler menace.'

In accordance with this policy, until the actual entry of the United States into the world conflict on Dec. 7, 1941, the United States had already been committed to give 'all aid short of war' to Great Britain, and had pledged itself to be the 'arsenal of democracy' and to furnish such supplies as possible to China and Russia.

New Bases.

By amicable agreement, Iceland is garrisoned by an American Army force, and a naval base has been established there. Dutch Guiana is occupied by an American force by request of the Dutch and in cooperation with Brazil. This completes a chain of bases in the North Atlantic from Iceland to Bermuda, including those near the Caribbean Sea, covering the central Atlantic with Trinidad and Dutch Guiana in the Southern Atlantic.

American Naval Strategy.

The United States two-ocean Navy is rapidly becoming the mightiest naval power in the world. In five days the Navy has launched a submarine, three destroyers and a battleship. The battleship, Indiana, 35,000 tons was launched six months ahead of schedule. Only twenty-four months elapsed from keel laying to launching. She is the latest of five brand-new battleships in the water. Armament is nine 16-inch guns, twenty 5-inchers, the latest anti-aircraft cannon. The last of the 35,000 tonners (Alabama) will be launched in three months. The battleships to follow will be still more powerful. Two (Iowa and New Jersey) will displace 45,000 tons; two others now on the way (Missouri and Wisconsin) will be still larger. Planned but not yet on the ways are seven more. Two will be 45,000 tons or larger; the other five will be the largest, most powerful ever launched, 58,000 tons. As far as is known, the Japanese are planning nothing like them. When the two-ocean Navy is complete, the United States will have 32 battleships, 15 new, 17 of the old fleet. The rest of its new fleet (including eleven more carriers, 54 cruisers, 192 destroyers, 73 submarines) is considerably ahead of schedule. (See also NAVAL SCIENCE, AMERICAN.)

American Army Strategy and Maneuvers.

The United States Army, with the Regular Army, National Guard and draftees, of over 1,500,000 men is being organized and trained continuously, and a second Selective Service registration, in February 1942, is expected to increase the Army to more than 3,000,000 men.

The maneuvers completed in September 1941 were the largest ever undertaken by the United States Army, and enabled the authorities to judge the preparedness of the Army. Lieutenant General McNair, Chief of Staff, G.H.Q., Lieutenant General Hugh Drum, commanding the First Army, and Major General Griswold, commanding Fourth Army Corps, expressed their ideas in a critique. Splendid progress was made since last maneuvers but one year's work does not perfect an army.

Lessons of the maneuvers tended to prove that tanks should be used in mass, not dispersed; that mobile massed guns might be the basis of the answer to the tank. Armored Divisions must be accompanied by Infantry; more motorized divisions should be created to provide tanks accompanying Infantry. Possibility of equipping Infantry with accompanying artillery is being studied.

General McNair praised the cheerfulness, keen intelligence, and physical stamina of the American soldier. General Drum states 'Present water-tight compartments existing between the air support, armored and other ground forces must be broken down. Anti-tank tactics must be offensive.'

General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff, stated to participating troops in a message, 'They showed a noticeable gain in technique and performance over the last maneuvers and that a powerful and highly trained army is developing with amazing speed, an army imbued with the American traits of initiative, ingenuity and both a capacity and a desire for vigorous and aggressive action.'

Some of the lessons appear to be: Skilled and trained observers with intimate knowledge of ground operations as well as flying are essential. Twelve long range 'Derax' or radio locaters employed gave excellent results in locating enemy planes long before they reached their targets. A mobile Air Warning Service housed in a large truck has been developed to accompany a field army, enabling adequate warning of impending air raids even when the Army and trucks were moving. Parachutists and air-borne Infantry proved their great utility.

Tanks require a day of maintenance to a day of combat. Armored Divisions should have combat support aviation attached and integrally acting under the same command.

American Production.

The production of aircraft, anti-aircraft guns, tanks, anti-tank guns, and 'tank killers' — the most modern artillery, and munitions of all kinds is now becoming satisfactory. About one-half is being sent to Russia, China, or English possessions. The tanks and airplanes are receiving the test of battle and earning the highest praise of the combatants.

Tank production is most vital. Answering critics who had held his program of tank production disrupted the manufacture of aircraft, Lord Beaverbrook said, 'Aircraft cannot win the battle alone. Tanks might; certainly aircraft cannot. Tanks and aircraft together is the form in which we want to fight. Tanks have been the most formidable weapon in this war — a terrible weapon.' Practically all most experienced military students are in agreement with the above. About 300 light tanks (M2A4 or M3) are now fighting in Libya. Fully loaded with a crew of four, guns, fuel, ammunition and equipment, this tank weighs 13 tons; powered with Guibeson Diesel engine or continental radial aircraft engine each developing 265 and 290 horse power. On the road this tank can make a speed of over 45 m.p.h.; its cross-country speed is determined by the terrain. It is armed with a 37 mm. gun in a revolving turret; one .30 caliber mounted coaxially with the 37 mm., an antiaircraft .30 caliber, and another machine gun in the front of the tank in the cowl. In the crew are driver, assistant driver, tank commander, and radio operator, each of whom handle one or more guns. It is very fast and mobile, mechanically reliable and heavily armored for a light vehicle. Its surface-hardened armor can turn away machine gun bullets, 20 mm. projectiles and most 37 mm. Its frontal and turret plates are thick, and it is now said by British officers in Libya to be superior to heavier German tanks. Surprisingly few of these tanks, owing to their superior speed and maneuverability, have been put out of action in combat. This tank is standard for American and British Armies and is now being built in Canada.

A small number of M 3 American medium tanks are in use in Libya. This tank weighs 30 tons fully loaded, has a road speed of 25 m.p.h., an improved vision device, and carries a 75 mm. gun, a 37 mm. gun, four .30 caliber machine guns and a seven man crew. It is relatively a high-speed maneuverable tank of great fire power. In the latest models of the medium (30-ton) tank, power traversing and gyro stabilizing give speedier and more effective fire direction and a stabler firing platform, enabling tanks to fire with considerable accuracy while in motion. The United States has undertaken to spend $67,500,000,000 for national defense since June 1940. The biggest Army item is for Ordnance, $3,719,882,246. One item included was for overwhelming tank production to beat Nazi Germany. Out of the Ordnance share would come 32,000 tanks (half-light, half-medium), enough to outfit 70 U. S. divisions.

The decision to make an immediate start on broadening the tank production program is based principally on fighting experiences in North Africa. The Army Air Force program is also to be more than doubled. William S. Knudsen stated that medium tank production is to be stepped up from a scheduled 1,000 to 2,000 per month.

The United States is producing a heavy tank of about 54 tons, but it is still in the experimental stage.

A mechanical defense against tanks has long been sought. The United States Ordnance Department has produced a tank destroyer in the form of a faster tank, on rubber tires, specially built to destroy tanks. It is long (30 feet), low-lying (7 feet), armored, and mounted on wheels not caterpillars. Seventeen have been ordered. If they work as well as is promised, quantity production will be an easy job for the United States motor industry. The trackless tank rides on eight huge wheels, independently sprung so that each can crawl over stumps and gullies in its own way. Powered by a 250 h.p. Guiberson Diesel engine, it travels more than 80 m.p.h. on smooth highways and is fast and nimble over rough ground. It mounts a 75 mm. gun in its flat turret and two .50 caliber machine guns.

The so-called Jeep has been tried out and adopted. It is a Bantam quarter-ton truck used as a prime mover for 37 mm., anti-tank guns, as a mount for a .50 caliber machine gun. It has a speed up to 50 m.p.h. over rolling prairies; motor, 45 h.p. Continental; drive, 4 wheels; speeds, 6 forward, 2 reverse; gas tank, 12 gallons, road clearance, 9 inches; and gas consumption with load, 27 miles per gallon. It can negotiate deep sand (12 inches), carry a towing gun and a three-man load. It can be produced cheaply in mass production. It can be used as Battalion C.P., as replacement for motorcycle side-car, ammunition carrier, and as a radio truck.

The new technique of warfare includes fast armored scout cars to locate the enemy quickly, feel out his position and strength, search out traps, ambushes and mines. Speedy armored personnel cars are used to secure bridges, establish strong points, mass troops at distant places in the shortest time with minimum casualties, and overcome light machine guns. This vehicle must combine mobility over rough and soft terrain with high road speed.

The answer for the United States Army was found in the half-track car, designed and engineered by the U. S. Ordnance Department. Requirements were lightness for mobility and speed, heavy armor plate for safety, armament for protection, heavy construction for durability, a large power unit for propulsion. It will negotiate rough and soft terrain, ford shallow streams, bridge trenches, overcome shell holes and ditches, and it possesses high road clearance but low target height. The cars produced are superior to those of any of the combat nations and considerably speedier than any of the European units. Their top speed is 50 m.p.h.; cruising radius, 250 miles; they will climb a 60 per cent grade with a 13-man complement. The scout car is protected by three machine guns, two caliber .30 and one caliber .50 — and the personnel carrier by one caliber .30. (Army Ordnance, Oct. 1941.)

Scientific Research and Military Education.

War brings tremendous advancement to science. The United States has over 100 of the most efficient laboratories, and many hundreds of the most renowned scientists at work on discoveries of improvements in military science. A higher octane gasoline said to improve the maneuverability and speed of airplanes 20 or 25 per cent which would give them a tremendous advantage in battle is one product. Great increase in the power of explosives, which would give an increase in the effectiveness of bombs by a great percentage, is another. Methods of exploding land or water mines set by the enemy and of detecting the presence of submarines or airplanes their distance and direction; improvement in steel armor, in treads of tanks, in photography and camouflage, are others.

Schools of all kinds are at work to provide theoretical and practical knowledge to the Army; parachutist school, airborne Infantry schools, anti-tank schools, air pilots, air mechanics, tank schools, staff schools — in which officers and men are given not only theoretical knowledge but the practical work of troop handling and tactics. The latest information on fighting at the various battlefronts throughout the world is digested and lessons drawn therefrom. The latest improvements in tanks, airplanes, anti-air and antitank warfare are added to our newer planes and tanks without materially delaying production. Large scale maneuvers are continually taking place, not only to harden the troops and give experience to officers, but to try out various organizations and combinations of arms and equipment to finally decide on organization and armament. Battle experience is the final test, but experience is the dearest teacher, and the United States Army by its maneuvers, schools, research, its full information of the battle experience of others, is endeavoring to learn most efficiently at the least cost. Promotion by selection and an age-in-grade law now enables the Army to get younger officers in the higher grades, eliminate the unfit, and place others where their particular qualifications are most efficiently used.

The latest organization of the United States Armored Division is much like that of the German armored divisions: the organization is flexible, changes in detail of structure and equipment are frequent and being tried out in large maneuvers. Units are recast to suit the expected requirements of specific tasks.

The Armored Division is designed to make the most of speed, shock action and protected fire power that modern technology makes possible. Its core is the Tank Brigade. All other motorized elements — Infantry, Artillery, reconnaissance, communication, Engineer, anti-aircraft, and anti-tank elements, attached aviation — are intended to assist the tanks to maneuver, to protect them, to hold ground they have won, to exploit their successes. The tendency in 1941 has been to strengthen the anti-aircraft and anti-tank defenses of the Division, to provide closer support of artillery or armored mounts, to shift from light to medium and heavy tanks. The Tank Brigade may consist of two identical regiments, each equipped with light and medium tanks, or one medium and one heavy tank regiment. Engineer, communication and maintenance elements are included and anti-aircraft weapons.

United States Air Service.

Airplanes are never good enough. All the time that Curtiss-Wright was setting up its assembly lines to achieve quantity production of P-40's, it was improving its model. So far there have been five versions of P-40. The latest is P-40E which the British call Kittyhawk. P-40E is very different from P-40 — a slimmer, cleaner, 50 m.p.h. faster model which reaches over 360 m.p.h. and carries six .50 caliber machine guns. The original P-40 carried only two .50 caliber and two .30 caliber guns. The P-40F, instead of an Allison engine, uses a Rolls-Royce. Curtiss-Wright keeps turning out good airplanes as fast as possible, while more powerful ships are being readied. German production of airplanes is reduced from an estimated 4,000 per month to 2,300 while retooling. United States output in December 1941 is expected to equal this. President Roosevelt, in his speech of Jan. 4, 1942, announced a program of 60,000 planes for 1942, and in 1943, 125,000.

During June and July, the American built Tomahawks, Curtiss P-40 fighters, shot forty Axis planes out of the air and destroyed sixteen on the ground. The acrobatic agility and fire power of the Tomahawks make them very deadly for Nazi dive-bombers. The Brewster dive-bomber, now under test, will be 100 m.p.h. speedier than Nazi Stukas. It is a relatively large all-metal mid-wing monoplane developed primarily for Navy operation from airplane carriers. An export version, the Brewster Bermuda designed for land based operations, will be built in quantity for Great Britain. The craft manned by a pilot and gunner, carries a 1,000 lb. bomb entirely enclosed in its fuselage, a feature to eliminate drag and so increase speed. It is powered by a Wright double-row cyclone motor rated at 1,700 horsepower.

The American air dreadnought, B-19, rated by Army Air Corps as the world's largest plane has a wing-spread of 212 feet, and carries a crew of ten and a bomb load of 28 tons. It has a top speed of 210 m.p.h., and a range of 7,000 miles fully loaded. Improvements are constantly being made in United States planes in amount of fire power, larger cannon, better armor protection, better rate of climb and height of ceiling, greater speed and range, greater reliability.

In production in the United States there are:

The Boeing B-17, first successful sub-stratosphere bomber. The first 2,000 horse power production motor, turned out by Wright and Pratt & Whitney, the most dependable aircraft engines in the world. Leadership in fuel, both quality and quantity.

The world's fastest pursuit ship, Lockheed P-38.

The world's best dive-bomber, Curtiss S.C.

The world's largest bomber, Douglas B-19.

Medium bombers with almost speed of pursuit ships, Martin B-26.

World's most accurate bomb sight, Norden.

World's leadership in supercharger development, the Turbo supercharger.

Aviation Schools.

Air schools are being multiplied. As the air program is expanded, the training program requires 84 combat groups with over 100 flying and technical schools in operation.

Secretary of War Stimson announced that by next June, the Air Forces will nearly triple the size of their manpower of last June. They will have 400,000 flying cadets and enlisted men plus 40,000 officers. They will have planes for their pilots who then will total 25,000. The Air Force is working up to a rate of 30,000 new flyers a year, is training in 80 civilian and military schools. At 38 more schools, it trains gunners, navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, radiomen, and others. Under Secretary of War Patterson rates the Army Air Service as combining the good points of Britain's RAF and the Nazi Luftwaffe. He also opposes a separate air force as contributing to separation of organization and command and injuring teamwork. In this, he is joined by some of the best informed and most experienced of military students.

The Army Air Corps has developed a mile-a-minute photograph service to aid bombing planes and artillery in attack. With a new super speed method of developing and printing pictures, it can photograph an enemy's position, process the photograph on the return flight, drop it from the airplane and return to make additional pictures. Darkness is no protection in movement of troops since the Army has developed parachuted magnesium flares providing almost daylight illumination for night photography. Camouflage, likewise, is almost outmoded because of colored photography. Gun emplacements and ships disguised with variegated painting, which are often invisible to the eye stand out clearly in an aerial color photograph. (See also PHOTOGRAPHY.)

Numerous improvements are constantly being made in the United States Infantry to increase efficiency. All troops using a rifle are now equipped with the Garand semi-automatic rifle, increasing their fire power over the old rifle armed troop by about 2.5. In place of the revolver, a light carbine is to be carried by all Infantry officers below the grade of Major, by parachutists, and by non-commissioned officers, formerly armed with the .45. This is a semi-automatic .30 caliber Winchester carbine, weighing less than 5 pounds, only 36 inches long, and with an effective range of 300 yards. It increases Infantry regiment fire power by one-third.

Portable metal landing fields for airplanes can now be put together by Army aviation engineers on sand, marshy or rough ground. Eighteen freight cars brought to the nearest siding 1,000 tons of metal strips, 16' x 10', formed into a metal mat runway 150 feet wide and 3,000 feet long. Holes in the metal strips allow grass to grow through for camouflage. (See also AVIATION.)

Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor.

The surprise attack made by Japan on Dec. 7, 1941, on Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, succeeded in sinking one 26-year-old battleship, the Arizona, the 32-year-old battleship Utah which has outlived its fighting days and was in use as a target ship, three destroyers built under the 1933 program — the Cassin, the Downes and the Shaw — and the mine-layer Oglala. The 27-year-old Oklahoma capsized but can be righted and repaired. A few other ships were damaged but are already partially or entirely repaired. The attack also destroyed some 40 or 50 airplanes. Of the personnel, 2,947 officers and men of the Army and Navy were killed. The Philippine Islands also were attacked; Manila was bombed fiercely although it was declared an open city. (See also PHILIPPINE ISLANDS and WORLD WAR II.) Japan also attacked Malaya, Hong Kong and the Pacific Islands. The Prince of Wales and Repulse, British battleships, were sunk at Singapore; Japanese landings in force in Malaya were made.

The sinking of two British battleships and one United States battleship, with serious injury to others, may overcome the British-United States preponderance of Naval Force in the Pacific, and for a time force a 'waiting game.'

Comparison of Navies.

In the war of the Pacific, naval and air strength probably will decide victory. The United States is re-enforced by the detailing to the Pacific of some vessels in the British, Australian and Dutch navies. British ships now undergoing repair in Pacific Coast harbor will be fit soon for Pacific fighting, although they were damaged in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The American Navy, on the other hand, is divided between the Pacific and the Atlantic.

There is speculation here whether the Japanese fleet is re-enforced by some ships from the German navy, chiefly the huge battleship Von Tirpitz and the 26,000-ton Gneisenau. In battleships, the United States has 5 more than Japan, most of them of later construction and superior tonnage with 15 building to Japan's 3.

The United States airplane carriers have a total complement of 503 planes, plus the Langley's complement, with 5 carriers building, while the Japanese carry only 250 planes with two carriers building or ready. Japan's carriers are converted merchantmen.

Japan can produce only about 400 airplanes a month and her material for this production may run out in a year. The United States now produces over 2,000 and in 6 months will produce 5,000 planes a month of the latest models. Japan has only 4,000 to 5,000 fighting planes, of which many are obsolescent. Apparently Japan can wage an 'all out' war along the most modern lines for a year, possibly a few months longer, judging from present strength and estimated stocks of essential materials.

The present appearances are that the Pacific War, after the initial success of treacherous surprise, may settle down to a struggle of attrition in which the tremendous production ability of the United States, gradually coming to full fruition, will be the deciding factor. See also AVIATION; NAVAL SCIENCE, AMERICAN; WORLD WAR II.