1939: Mongolia

History.

Mongolia is, in a broad sense, that vast area of Central Asia which lies between the fortieth and fiftieth parallels of latitude and extends from Tibet eastward to Manchuria. It has been the cradle of those nomadic warlike tribes which, at critical periods in the past, have invaded the civilized states of the Far East, the Near East and Europe.

The Mongols reached the height of their power under the leadership of Genghis Khan (A. D. 1162-1227). His grandson, Kublai Khan, founded the Yuan Dynasty which ruled China from 1260 to 1368. In 1689 the Mongols accepted the rule of the Manchus, who had in the meantime driven the Mings out of China and established the Ch'ing Dynasty. By this time the Mongols had resolved into three main groups; the Northern group consisted of old Mongol stock which formed the core of the Mongol nation — this group settled in what is now Outer Mongolia; the Southern group represented the backwash from China at the time of the fall of the Yuan Dynasty (1368) — it settled in what is now known as Inner Mongolia; the Western group represented what had once been the core of Mongol hegemony over Central Asia — this group remained in the Altai region of Chinese Turkestan (Sinkiang), and in the Ch'inghai (Kokonor) district of Tibet.

Organization and Administration.

When the Chinese Republic was established in 1911 the Northern Mongols separated themselves from China and set up an autonomous government (never recognized by the Chinese) in that area known as Outer Mongolia. The Southern and Western groups were attached to various provinces of China for purposes of administration (the Southern group to the provinces of Jehol, Chahar, Suiyuan and Ninghsia — the Western group to the provinces of Sinkiang and Ch'inghai). See also SINKIANG.

The tribe is the essential unit of Mongol society, the leader of the tribe being known as 'Prince.' Title and control pass to a son, not necessarily the eldest. When the Manchus ruled China they attempted to break up the tribes by insisting on territorial association for each tribe and prince. This regulation was chiefly responsible for the cleavage between the Northern and Southern groups.

Tribes are known as 'banners,' and contain from 1,000 to 7,000 men each. The Manchus devised the 'League' (or Meng) as an administrative unit. Each League was presided over by an appropriate official and contained several banners. Migration of tribes in those areas under Chinese control is now impossible, though individual nomads migrate between summer and winter pastures. The raising of livestock (cattle, sheep, goats and horses) is the chief occupation of the people.

Religion.

An important characteristic of Mongol life is religion, which is Lamaist Buddhism. It was introduced into Mongolia from India by way of Tibet during the Yuan Dynasty of China. The Western Mongols, who received it first, tried to use it to establish hegemony over all Mongols. The Manchus, during their reign, issued regulations prohibiting the selection of relatives of temporal princes as Living Buddhas (Bishops), thus turning the church into a contender with the State for power. Every principality has its central temple monastery, which is supported by the local tribe.

Inner Mongolia.

Organization, Area, Population.

Modern maps of Asia usually show as Mongolia only that area which constitutes the Mongolian People's Republic, or Outer Mongolia. Inner Mongolia consists of the four Chinese provinces of Jehol (now part of Manchukuo), Chahar, Suiyuan and Ninghsia, which are situated in that order from east to west along the northern border of China. The area of the three last named comprises 524,085 square miles, an area roughly equivalent to that of the combined states of Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho and Nevada. Here live about 7,000,000 people, about 300,000 being Mongols and the rest Chinese. Jehol contains nearly 1,000,000 Mongols.

Chinese Immigration.

Mass Chinese migration into Inner Mongolia dates from the opening of the railway from Peking to Suiyuan. In 1909 it was opened to traffic as far as Kalgan, in Chahar province; in 1923 it reached Paot'o, in Suiyuan.

Most of the Chinese are agriculturists who have settled along the railroad and south of it, pushing the Mongol herdsmen to the west. As a result of this immigration, with consequent confiscation of Mongol grazing lands, a sharp conflict of interest developed between the Mongols and the Chinese, the former pressing for settlement of their grievances and for the extension to them of a degree of political autonomy. The failure of the Chinese Government to adjust these demands facilitated in a degree the extension of Japanese influence into this region.

Japanese Penetration.

In 1933 the Japanese Kwangtung army (from Manchuria) invaded Jehol. This province was incorporated into the puppet state of Manchukuo (Manchuria). In 1935 the Japanese penetrated Chahar, and in 1936 Prince Teh (Teh Wang), the most influential of the Mongol princes, allied himself with them and became head of a puppet régime with headquarters at Kalgan.

When the Sino-Japanese conflict was initiated in July 1937, a Japanese military force was despatched to occupy the railway between Peip'ing (Peking) and Paot'o. Paot'o fell late in October. The road has since been in the hands of the Japanese, though traffic is occasionally disrupted by Chinese guerrilla columns.

Under Japanese control Inner Mongolia (less Jehol and Ninghsia) has been divided into three administrative units. In the southeast, southern Chahar has been formed into an autonomous state called Ch'a Nan (literally south Chahar), with Kalgan as capital. In this region are iron mines with estimated deposits of 100,000,000 tons. The mines are being exploited by the China Development Company, a Japanese concern.

The second area consists of that part of Shansi province which lies north of the inner loop of the Great Wall. The capital is Tat'ung, and the region is notable for its coal mines, which contain an estimated twelve billion tons. The mines are being developed by the South Manchurian Railway Company.

The largest territorial area, under the new organization, is known as the United Leagues of Mongolia, and comprises all of Suiyuan and most of Chahar. If the Japanese succeed in moving into Ninghsia they will probably incorporate that province into the United Leagues of Mongolia. Agriculture and cattle raising are the chief occupations in this area.

Chinese Defense.

Chinese resistance to the Japanese invasion of Suiyuan and North Shansi is in the hands of General Fu Tso-yi, who commands the North Route Army. Under his leadership are the cavalry armies of Generals Ma Chan-san, Ho Chu-kuo and Men P'in-yuch, and an infantry corps under General Tun P'ao-san. Military operations are designed to interrupt the flow of supplies to Japanese garrisons along the railway, and to prevent Japanese exploitation of natural resources. This army has also been successful in bringing to the Chinese side Mongols, Manchurians and Chinese who were recruited and trained by the Japanese. Of such troops, 4,000 are now serving with the North Route army. They continue to wear their Japanese uniforms and to use Japanese arms and equipment.

Outer Mongolia.

Organization, Area, Population.

There has always been greater cohesion among the Northern Mongols than among the other two groups. In 1911, when China became a Republic, the Northern Mongols established an autonomous government in what is now known as Outer Mongolia, setting up their capital at Urga. See also SIBERIA.

In 1921 the Mongolian People's Republic was established there, and the name of the capital was changed from Urga to Ulan Bator Khoto The area of the Republic comprises about 580,000 square miles, and it contains about 1,000,000 inhabitants. The Republic is affiliated with, but is not a part of, the U.S.S.R. No foreign government other than the U.S.S.R. has recognized the Outer Mongolian Government, and consequently the Republic has diplomatic relations with only that nation.

In 1918-19 the Soviets assisted the Mongols in resisting the efforts of Baron Ungern von Sternberg to invade Russia, with Japanese aid, by way of Outer Mongolia.

A considerable number of Buriat Mongols have migrated from the Baikal region of Siberia to this area since 1921. There are now six banners of Buriat Mongols in Outer Mongolia. Other tribes are divided into four leagues. The Northern division of Khalkaas (Tushetu Khan) contains 20 banners; the Central division (Sain Noyan) contains 19; the Western division (Jasokto Khan) contains 19; and the Eastern division (Tsetan Khan) contains 23. The Urga Living Buddha's subjects number about 71,000, and other temple subjects number about 23,000.

Products and Occupations.

Since 1932 the Mongolian party tactics have endeavored to lay the foundation for a gradual transition of the economy to a noncapitalist form. Livestock raising is the principal occupation of the people, and individual ownership of the herds is customary. However, simple forms of cooperative effort, such as gathering fodder for winter feed, are encouraged.

The size of the herds was estimated in 1937 to be 23,265,000 head. Of this number three-fourths were sheep and goats, about 2,500,000 were cattle, 2,000,000 were horses and 500,000 were camels. In this year the area from which fodder was harvested was 207,000 acres, an increase of over 200,000 acres since 1925.

Hunting is another profitable occupation. About 20 per cent of the exports from the Republic are furs. Fur-bearing animals include the marmot, squirrel, fox, worl and sable.

Minerals known to exist here, though not exploited, are gold, silver, coal, iron, lead, copper, graphite and salt.

Transportation.

The ox-cart and the pace camel are the principal means of transportation, though there is a certain amount of auto transport. The flat character of the country in the South facilitates automobile traffic regardless of roads. An ancient trail connects Ulan Bator with Kalgan. A road links Baian Tumen, in the east with Lake Buir Nor, and Hsingan Province of Manchuria. From Ulan Bator a road leads to Altan-Bulag, on the Soviet border near Kiakhta. This connects with the Soviet railroad which is being built between Kiakhta and Ulan-Ude. There is also a road from Ulan Bator to the Soviet border at Erien-Tsab.

Exports, Imports.

Close ties exist with Soviet Russia. The latter provides financial assistance, technical aid and a market for Mongol goods. Exports consist of livestock and livestock products, hides, wool, hair, casings, butter and meat. Imports include flour, meal, tea, sugar, confectionary, tobacco and cigarettes, leather goods, petroleum and products, automobiles and bicycles. In 1937 Soviet imports from Outer Mongolia amounted to 33,694,000 rubles (a ruble in Mongolia equals about 20 cents, United States money). Exports to Mongolia the same year aggregated 65,822,000 rubles.

Military Affairs.

A mutual assistance pact was signed between the U.S.S.R. and the Mongolian People's Republic in 1924. Soviet forces were withdrawn in 1925, but they returned to cooperate with Mongolian troops in 1939 to resist the Japanese threat on the Manchurian frontier. Military stores are reported to have been accumulated for any eventuality.

Selective conscription is used to provide men for the army, which is said to number about 250,000. The selection is made from men between the ages of 16 and 40 years. Service is for two years. There are three military organizations: the Standing Army, the Officers' Training Corps at Ulan Bator (about 1,000), and the Territorial Army (also about 250,000.)

On May 15, 1939 fighting broke out on the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the vicinity of Lake Buir between Japanese and Mongolian troops. The latter were reënforced by the Russian Red army. Fighting continued until September 15, when Russia and Japan agreed to set up a joint commission to determine the boundary in the disputed area. (See also JAPAN; U.S.S.R.)

Education.

Since 1921 education among the Mongols has been increasing rapidly. Primary, secondary and technical schools have been established. There are now three newspapers and seven magazines in the Republic. The introduction of modern medicine has been especially important in fighting syphilis, a disease which is prevalent among the Mongols. In 1937, 250 Mongols graduated from the medical school at Ulan Bator.