1939: Finland

Fortification of the Aaland Islands.

During the first week in January 1939, Finland and Sweden renewed negotiations to fortify the Aaland Islands. On Jan. 7, the two Governments agreed upon a plan which provided that:

(1) Finland could 'take any defensive military measures' within the southern part of the neutralized zone, and throughout a period of 10 years had the right to take 'certain specified military measures' within the whole zone. The maximum limits of fortification for the whole of the Islands were set forth in a special (unpublished) agreement between the two Governments.

(2) Compulsory military service could be instituted for the Aaland population, to guard the Islands effectively.

Although the Finnish Government sought to avoid offending the Swedish-speaking Aalanders by assuring them that their mother-tongue would be the language of command in the new island defense forces, the Aaland Landsting (Legislative Assembly) promptly opposed any change in the convention of 1921. Over 96 per cent of the adult citizens of the islands protested, in February, to the League of Nations Council that militarization would imperil their national characteristics and destroy Aaland neutrality.

In spite of these objections, which the League on April 18 refused to consider, plans to fortify the islands continued. Sweden and Finland immediately submitted their preliminary 'Stockholm Plan' of Jan. 7 to the eight other countries which had signed the 1921 agreements neutralizing the Aaland Islands. In asking these countries to consent to refortification, the two Governments declared that in case of war in the Baltic they intended to permit no belligerent to intervene in the islands. As the U.S.S.R. was not a signatory to the original agreement, its consent was not sought, but on Jan. 21 Sweden and Finland tactfully asked the Soviet Government to exert its influence in obtaining the consent of the signatory powers. The Finnish and Swedish Governments received favorable replies from Estonia (see ESTONIA) on Jan. 9, from Great Britain on Feb. 3, from Latvia on Feb. 9, from Denmark and Poland on Feb. 17, from France on Feb. 19, from Germany on May 2, and from Italy on May 5. On May 22, pursuant to Finland's request, the Stockholm agreement was placed before the League of Nations Council for approval. Owing to Soviet opposition, however, no conclusive action was taken, and on May 27 the Council issued an informatory report which merely recorded views of the parties concerned. The Finnish and Swedish delegates to the League declared that Council approval after all was unnecessary to their plan — since all the powers which signed the 1921 convention had consented — and that fortification would proceed in the southern zone of the Islands. This determination, however, was short-lived. Following the fiery May 31 speech of Soviet Foreign Commissar Molotov, who denounced Finland and claimed that Russian interest in the Aaland Islands was greater than that of Sweden, the Swedish Government withdrew its participation and the Aaland plan expired (see SWEDEN). After war began in the fall, Finland on Sept. 6 forbade passage of belligerent warships through its territorial waters surrounding the Aaland Islands, but only in December when it became involved in hostilities with the U.S.S.R. did the Finnish Government announce that it was again fortifying the Islands. On Dec. 5 Sweden co-operated to the extent of mining the waters on its side of the Islands, thus forming with the Finnish defenses an impassable barrier to the Gulf of Bothnia, through which Finland receives supplies from Sweden. (See also LEAGUE OF NATIONS.)

Other Defense Measures.

When the Finnish Parliament assembled at the beginning of February 1939, for its last session before the July elections, it passed a bill providing for compulsory labor service in time of war. This new law affected all men and women, between the ages of 18 and 60, permanently domiciled in Finland. The use designed for compulsory labor service was indicated in the spring when volunteer workers were sent to strengthen defenses along the eastern frontier. This voluntary fortification work extended throughout the summer, and in it the Finnish people expressed their determination to defend themselves if attacked. The same determination was revealed even more clearly in August in the big autumn maneuvers on the Karelian Isthmus, where 20,000 men participated in war games.

Domestic Politics.

During the spring and summer of 1939, the Government strengthened its position at home, in order to present a united front in foreign affairs. As the year opened, much interest was directed toward litigation arising from the Government's attempt (Nov. 22, 1938) to suppress the Patriotic National Movement. When the Court of First Instance in Helsinki (Helsingfors) — which reviewed the case — refused to confirm the order for suppression, newspapers and organs of the Party resumed their activities. The effect of the Government's efforts on the people, however, was seen in the Finnish elections of July 1 and 3, when the Patriotic National Party lost 6 of its 14 seats in Parliament. It appeared that many voters had returned to the National Conservative Party (increasing its seats from 20 to 25), from which the Patriotic National movement had split six years earlier. At the same time, the Social Democrats and Agrarians, whose official party programs are different and hence must be compromised to maintain their coalition government, increased their seats, contrary to pre-election expectations. Along with the National Progressive Party, they consolidated their control as the number of Government seats increased from 143 to 147 of the total 200. See also SOCIALISM.

International Conferences in Finland; Olympic Game Preparations.

The foreign ministers of Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark met in Helsinki on Feb. 20-22, 1939, to exchange views on the international situation and discuss neutrality problems of the Northern Countries. Details of the Finnish-Swedish plan for fortifying the Aaland Islands were revealed to the ministers of Denmark and Norway, although subsequently Finland refused to give similar information to the U.S.S.R., on the ground that divulging it would be inconsistent with Finnish national security. At Helsinki the four governments also discussed the refugee problem, and agreed to adopt a common policy toward the Spanish Government of General Franco, which they all recognized de jure on March 31. About 100 newspapermen from Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland attended the Seventh Northern Journalist Meeting in Helsinki July 11-14, and affirmed the obligation of the press in neutral countries to give honest views to its readers, even when this policy involves criticism of foreign governments. To facilitate adequate reporting of the 1940 Olympic Games, scheduled to be held in Helsinki, telephone and telegraph communications between Finland and other European countries were greatly improved in 1939. Tremendous building activity, in preparation for the Olympics, characterized Finnish economic life throughout the year. Arrangements for the Games continued right up to the Soviet invasion of Finland on Nov. 30.

Foreign Relations.

Along with Sweden and Norway, Finland on May 17 replied to a German proposal by announcing that it did not consider a bi-lateral non-aggression pact with the Reich necessary. The Finnish Government, which has adhered to Scandinavian principles of impartial neutrality since 1934, also rejected Soviet overtures for a unilateral guarantee of Finland during the summer. On June 6, Finnish Foreign Minister Erkko declared that Finland would regard as an aggressor any state offering 'support' on the basis of unwanted guarantees. Soviet pressure on Finland intensified after the U.S.S.R. concluded its agreement with Nazi Germany, and Britain and France became involved in war.

On Sept. 24 the Soviet Government barred Finnish vessels from passing through Leningrad via the Neva River. (A clause in the Finnish-Soviet trade treaty of 1923 stipulated that Russia might close this waterway in case of 'war danger.') Soviet forces along the Finnish border increased steadily, and the Finns dug trenches in anticipation of Soviet demands similar to those then being pressed on Estonia and Latvia. Having signed its pact with Latvia on Oct. 5, Moscow turned to Finland the following day. On Oct. 8, the Finnish Cabinet accepted the U.S.S.R.'s 'invitation' to negotiate on 'various political and economic questions,' and on Oct. 14, Dr. Paasikivi, head of the Finnish delegation, received the complete Soviet demands in Moscow. Among other things, they included:

(1) Cession to Russia of territory on the Karelian Isthmus, to remove Leningrad 'from the range of long-distance guns.'

(2) Revision of the Arctic frontier around Petsamo, the ice-free port which Finland had obtained from Russia by the Treaty of Dorpat. (The Soviet base at Murmansk, only sixty miles due east of Petsamo but not directly touched by warm gulf-stream waters, is sometimes icebound during several winter months.)

(3) A thirty-year lease to the Soviet Union of Finland's vital port and fortress of Hangö, with adjoining territory. (Russia later offered to buy Hangö outright.)

(4) Cession to Russia of five islands in the Gulf of Finland. (For the total of 866 square miles demanded, the U.S.S.R. offered to cede Finland 2,134 square miles of unwanted Soviet territory north of Lake Ladoga. This territory included the districts of Repola and Porajarvi, from which the Finns had withdrawn in 1920 under the terms of the Treaty of Dorpat.)

(5) Exclusion of Sweden and all other foreign powers from fortification of the Aaland Islands.

(6) Strengthening of the Soviet-Finnish non-aggression treaty of 1932, with a clause in which the contracting parties agree not to join any groups or alliance directly or indirectly hostile to each other. (The U.S.S.R. denounced the 1932 pact the day before invading Finland.)

For over a month Soviet and Finnish officials debated these terms without making them public. Their harshness, however, was indicated by the tense diplomatic silence, by Government warnings to evacuate Finnish cities, and by military measures taken on both sides of the Russo-Finnish frontier. Finland's resistance was stiffened by world-wide interest in its fate, reflected on Oct. 11 in President Roosevelt's direct appeal to President Kalinin of the U.S.S.R., and on Oct. 18-19 in the Stockholm Conference convened by King Gustav of Sweden. Soviet persistence, in turn, was shown on Oct. 23, when the Russians rejected Finnish compromise proposals and stated that their original demands were 'minimum.' (See also LEAGUE OF NATIONS; UNITED STATES: Foreign Relations.)

Undeclared War with U.S.S.R.

Negotiations between the two countries finally broke down on Nov. 13, and within twenty-four hours the first of a series of land and air incidents had been reported between Russian and Finnish troops concentrated along the frontier. Soviet press attacks on Finland — inaugurated early in November — became more vituperative and accused Britain of encouraging Finnish 'stubbornness.' On Nov. 26 the Soviet Government claimed that a Finnish frontier battery had fired on Soviet troops, and demanded that the Finns withdraw 12 or 15 miles from the border. The two Governments came to no agreements, and on Nov. 30 Soviet airplanes bombed Helsinki, Viipuri (Viborg), Kotka, Hangö, and Petsamo. At the same time, invading Russian troops seized Finland's Arctic port of Petsamo and the Karelian border town of Terijoki, where the U.S.S.R. on Dec. 1 set up a puppet 'People's Government' and promptly recognized it as the legal régime in Finland. Moscow signed a mutual assistance pact with the Terijoki Government on Dec. 2, and obtained from it — on paper — all of the concessions which Helsinki had refused to grant. Stiff Finnish resistance, however, prevented the U.S.S.R. from reaping the benefits of its bargain with the puppet régime. A new government at Helsinki, formed on Dec. 1 with Risto Ryti as Premier and V. A. Tanner as Foreign Minister, announced that it was willing to negotiate for a just peace, but would fight to the end to preserve Finnish independence.

Taking advantage of every natural aid, Finnish troops stayed the Soviet attempt to drive through their country. Outnumbered heavily, the fighting Finns held off the invaders on the Karelian Isthmus, and adopted guerrilla tactics to inflict severe losses on the Russians in the Arctic. In 'the waist' of Finland, where Russians were attempting to cut the Finns in two, the invaders were hurled back, and in the vicinity of Lake Kianta, with the close of the year, two Russian divisions were decimated and tanks, guns and food supply trains were taken. Often numbed to inaction or even frozen to death, Russian soldiers were no match for agile Finn ski troops, yet Finnish forces realized that their lot would be more difficult in the spring. As they withstood the Soviet attack, in Geneva the League of Nations marshaled world opinion and sponsored material assistance for Finland (see LEAGUE OF NATIONS). From individuals and governments throughout the western world supplies were sent to Finland, but the Finns continued to do their own fighting. See also COMMUNISM; U.S.S.R.; WORLD PEACE.

Finnish Architecture.

See ARCHITECTURE.