1939: Education

Educational Statistics.

The United States Office of Education, which this year was transferred from the Department of the Interior to the Federal Security Agency, issued the 'Statistical Summary of Education 1935-36' as part of its Biennial Survey of Education in the United States: 1934-36. The total number of schools covered in the Summary was approximately 270,500, distributed as follows: elementary, 232,174 public and 9,992 private; high schools, 25,652 public and 3,327 private; universities, colleges, and professional schools, 536 public and 1,159 private; residential schools for the blind, deaf, feeble-minded, and delinquent, 295 public and 123 private; private commercial schools, 2,099; and schools of nursing, 1,381. Between 1933-34 and 1935-36 there was a decrease of 4,000 elementary schools, an increase of approximately 900 public high schools, and an increase of about 50 public and 200 private institutions of higher education.

About one-fourth of the total population was enrolled in full-time day schools; out of a total estimated population of 128,024,000 persons in Jan. 1936, 30,587,477 were enrolled in full-time day schools, 1,099,550 in evening and 308,488 in part-time and continuation public schools, 503,926 in summer schools, 297,921 in extension and correspondence courses, and 41,441 in short courses of 4 days or more conducted by colleges and universities.

The enrollment in public kindergartens and elementary schools was 20,495,767 (10,509,552 boys and 9,986,215 girls), and in private schools 2,274,584 (1,142,170 boys and 1,132,414 girls); the total 22,770,351 was approximately 500,000 fewer than in 1933-34, and 800,000 fewer than in 1920-30. The enrollment in public secondary schools rose from 4,399,422 in 1930 to 5,974,537 (2,948,765 boys and 3,025,772 girls) in 1936; in private high schools the enrollment was 387,309 (175,374 boys and 211,935 girls); the total enrollment in all types of secondary schools was 6,435,703 (3,102,472 boys and 3,273,231 girls). The number of teachers in public elementary schools in 1936 was 603,370 (69,882 men and 533,497 women) and in public high schools (junior and senior) 267,584 (109,191 men and 158,393 women). The total number of persons engaged in teaching at all levels and types of education from the kindergarten to the university, public and private, was 1,073,026 (266,504 men and 806,522 women).

The total expenditures for public education, including capital outlay and auxiliary agencies and activities, in 1936 was $2,254,042,033 ($1,968,898,198 for elementary and secondary education, and $285,143,835 for higher education). This sum represents an increase over 1932 and 1934, but a decrease as compared with 1930. The annual cost per adult for public education was $29.35 and $5.49 for private education, a total of $34.84 as compared with $30.54 in 1933-34, $40.05 in 1931-32, and $44.34 in 1929-30. Of the income for public education about 97 per cent came from the public treasury (2 per cent Federal, 30 per cent state, and 65 per cent county, city, or district).

The estimated value of property for public and private elementary and secondary education, for universities, colleges, and professional schools, and for teacher-training institutions was $10,115,744,000 in land, buildings, and equipment, and $2,237,340,000 in endowments and other trust funds — a total of $12,353,840,000.

Federal non-emergency funds authorized or expended for educational purposes in 1935-36 amounted to $39,948,633 distributed as follows: Office of Education, $663,380; land grant colleges, $25,443,791; vocational education at the secondary level, $10,386,603; and vocational rehabilitation, $1,454,859. In addition the U. S. Office of Indian Affairs had an appropriation, for the education of Indians and of natives of Alaska, of $7,992,720.

An inquiry to which only half of the number of city and county school systems replied showed 32,126 schools were served in 1934-35 with centralized libraries and 33,467 schools had classroom collections. The number of volumes in centralized libraries was approximately 28,346,250; the average-sized library had 1,018 volumes and the median-sized 407 volumes. The total expenditure for 2,568 libraries reporting was $6,868,251 or 0.64 cents per pupil enrolled.

In an article on 'Recent Trends in Collegiate Enrollment' (School and Society, Sept. 9, 1939) President Raymond Walters presents the statistics of collegiate enrollment during the 'thirties. From 1900 to 1930 the number of students rose from just under 240,000 to well over 1,000,000, or from 313 students to 897 per 100,000 of population. From 1930 to 1938 the total full-time enrollments in 355 typical, approved institutions show a gain of 22 per cent. Of 817,000 full-time students in 569 approved institutions in 1938, more than one-third were in 55 public universities, an increase of 30 per cent since 1930. Independent liberal arts colleges have 26 per cent of the total enrollment in approved institutions. The universities under private control, some of which limit their classes, are third numerically with 23 per cent of the 1938 enrollment. The newer and less heavily populated sections of the country have recently had larger percentage increases than the East, with the greatest advance in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. Six out of ten liberal arts students in 240 approved institutions in 1938 were men; the percentage of women has been increasing slightly. Freshman enrollments from 1934 to 1938 show marked increases in engineering schools and in commerce or business administration courses. Attendance in 65 approved law schools is decreasing. While in medicine 49 approved colleges show a small increase, despite limitations on admissions. Enrollments have been maintained partly because of lack of jobs and partly by financial aid to students. In a recent typical year colleges and universities gave 330,000 students a total of over $38,000,000 in scholarships, grants-in-aid, loans, etc., an average of $116, and in the same year National Youth Administration expenditures were more than $16,000,000, an average of $90, to 180,000 students.

The following figures show the increases in full-time enrollments in 355 institutions from 1930 to 1938; public universities (46) from 188,681 to 247,620 (31.2 per cent); private universities (43) from 152,458 to 168,066 (10.2 per cent); independent colleges (222) from 123,769 to 142,983 (15.5 per cent); technological institutions (30) from 46,351 to 65,825 (42 per cent); and teachers colleges (14) from 13,222 to 15,613 (18.1 per cent).

Apart from the fact that the enrollments reflect economic conditions, concludes Dr. Walters, is 'the fact that a fair share of the students go to college and stay in college to attain objectives which transcend statistical appraisal; the intellectual and cultural enrichment of their lives and finer service to America.'

At the beginning of the academic year, 1939-40, the enrollments in a number of representative institutions of higher education showed but a slight increase, .94 per cent, over the preceding year — 408,040 students as compared with 404,225. Of the 88 institutions from which reports were received 44 in the East showed an increase of only .28 per cent, 29 in the West an increase of 1.2 per cent, and 15 in the South an increase of 2.8 per cent; among the 88 institutions 29 reported the largest enrollment in history.

In a later report ('Statistics of Registration in American Universities and Colleges, 1939,' School and Society, Dec. 16, 1939), Dr. Walters reports an enrollment of 873,697 full-time students and a grand total of 1,323,874 full-time, part-time, and summer school students in 648 institutions, an increase of 2.7 per cent in full-time students and 1.2 per cent in the grand total over the corresponding figures for November 1938. The 867,652 students enrolled in 626 institutions were distributed as follows: 275,458 in 55 public universities, 184,766 in 51 private universities, 236,915 in 401 colleges, 97,361 in 48 technological institutions, and 73,152 in 71 teachers colleges. New York State led with 96,967 full-time students and was followed by Pennsylvania with 52,096 full-time students. Among individual institutions the University of California ranked first with 26,004 full-time students in its various branches, the University of Minnesota second with 15,301 full-time students, and Columbia University third with 14,211 full-time students.

The figures in general seem to indicate that increases in college enrollments are reaching a standstill. The reasons for this are varied, but the most probable one seems to be that opportunities for employment are increasing. It is also possible that youth may be becoming disillusioned about the prospects of beneficial employment confronting the college graduate. The outbreak of the war in Europe may have had an effect on some prospective students. Certainly a number of college and university presidents seized on this situation to inform students, to quote President Harold W. Dodds of Princeton University, that they 'could not at this moment be employed in a more worthwhile undertaking.'

National Youth Administration.

According to a report issued in August 1939, the National Youth Administration received an appropriation of $27,465,319 to provide for the part-time employment of 450,000 students who would otherwise be unable to continue their education. Of the total sum $13,494,164 was allotted to school aid and $13,971,155 to the college and graduate aid program. The funds are participated in by 25,500 secondary schools and 1,650 colleges and universities. The college and graduate aid quota for each state is determined on the basis of 10 per cent of the students between 16 and 24 years of age enrolled as of Oct. 1, 1938.

Teacher Preparation.

One of the serious weaknesses in American education has for a long time been recognized to be the variety in the requirements for teacher certification and teacher preparation. Both problems are being attacked through the American Council of Education. With the assistance of a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York a Committee on Teacher Examinations has been created, including a group of school superintendents who represent some of the largest and best organized school systems of the country. The experiment with a teacher examination which may become national in scope is not intended to encroach on the autonomy of local authorities in the selection of teachers. The tests to be used in the examination will not be offered as the sole basis or even as the most important basis for the selection of teachers but would be made available to supplement whatever methods may be employed by the local systems on the analogy of college entrance examinations or medical aptitude tests, which leave each institution concerned free to make its selection of candidates in its own way. The creation of such an examination would help to reduce the great variety of standards and provide nation-wide norms for the appraisal of prospective teacher candidates.

The tests to be used in this examination will be prepared by the Cooperative Test Service of which Dr. Ben Wood of New York is the director. The Committee plans to aid the cooperating systems through an exchange of ideas on the improvement of methods of selecting candidates. The results of the examination will furnish data for research in teacher education either under the direction of the Committee or by teacher-training institutions participating in the project.

The intention of the examination is to set up for admission into the profession minimum standards in intelligence, culture, and professional knowledge and in mastery of subject matter to be taught.

The total battery of tests, which will require from ten to twelve hours, and will allow for a rather exhaustive sampling of knowledge tested, will include tests in the first group: (1) English; (2) general culture; (3) professional subjects; and (4) contemporary affairs; the second group of tests will be divided according to the requirements for positions as teachers in elementary or secondary schools. The first examination will be given in March 1940, in different centers. The appointing authority will have an indispensable index of a candidate's general culture and professional knowledge on the basis of national norms, but beyond that will be free to exercise its won judgment on the whole training and experience record in determining the position of a candidate on its eligibility list.

Evidences of dissatisfaction with the preparation of teachers have been accumulating for a number of years. During the post-War period of rapid expansion of educational facilities it was argued that the need of teachers was so great that the demand exceeded the supply of well-qualified candidates; during the depression years the number of positions and salaries suffered curtailment. Although requirements for the preparation of teachers have been widely raised in terms of length, there are widespread criticisms of the standards of work in the teacher-training institutions. Evidence of this was produced in the Report of the Carnegie Foundation on The Student and His Knowledge (1938); drastic criticisms of the preparation of teachers were made by President Conant of Harvard and by Dean Henry W. Holmes of the Harvard Graduate School of Education in their last annual reports.

As indicated above the plans of the Committee on Teachers Examinations is an attempt to set up nationally recognized minimum standards. The American Council on Education has set up another body, the Commission on Teacher Education, which, under the direction of Dr. Karl W. Bigelow, will plan improvements in the preparation of teachers. Assisted by a grant from the General Education Board the Commission will devote five years to establishing a clearing-house of information regarding successful practices and promising experiments in this field. It will cooperate with and encourage groups engaged in the preparation of teachers to utilize this information and in experimenting with new plans. Conferences of workshops have already been organized to provide opportunities for the exchange of information, observation of practices, and consultation with experts. It is recognized by the Commission that no one plan or theory of teacher education will suit all parts of the country or all levels of education. Experiments in pre-service and in-service education of teachers will, therefore, be encouraged and evaluated over a period of years. The importance of adequately educated and professionally prepared teachers for the welfare and future of American society is beginning to be recognized far more widely than ever before, for, in the words of Dr. Bigelow, 'What those teachers are, what they know, and what they will do will be factors of critical importance for individuals and democratic society alike.'

The Commission in June 1939, selected twenty nationally representative institutions and fourteen representative school systems which are experimenting with a variety of programs and procedures in the pre-service and in-service education of teachers. The following institutions have been selected for inclusion in the list of cooperating institutions: Columbia University, Ohio State University, Stanford University, University of Nebraska, University of North Carolina, University of Texas, Claremont College, College of St. Catherine (St. Paul, Minn.), College of William and Mary, Middlebury College, Oberlin College, Colorado State College of Education (Greeley), Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College (Richmond), New Jersey State Teachers College (Newark), Southern Illinois State Normal University (Carbondale), State Teachers College (Milwaukee), State Teachers College (Troy, Ala.), Western State Teachers College (Kalamazoo, Mich.), Prairie View State College (Texas), and Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute.

Status of Teachers.

There is, however, another aspect of the problem which is not usually discussed in connection with the two problems mentioned above — the problem of salaries. The average annual salary of teachers, principals, and supervisors combined was $1,283 in 1936, as compared with the average $1,420 in 1930, a reduction of nearly 10 per cent. The picture is still darker when it is remembered that the average salary ranges from $504 in Arkansas to $2,414 in New York, and that the salary in 32 states was less than the average of $1,283 for the nation. If rural school teachers are taken alone, a survey of 'Teachers in Rural Communities,' issued by the National Education Association this year, showed that the composite mean salary of 11,298 rural teachers was $838. Such a situation does not affect rural communities only but the nation as a whole because of the migration of rural children to urban areas.

According to a report on 'Salaries of School Employees, 1938-39' issued by the National Education Association the salary situation of city school teachers shows signs of improvement, but only in cities of more than 100,000 population. The salaries for 1938-39 in practically every type of position in cities of this size are higher than in 1936-37 and in most cases higher than in 1932-33. In cities of smaller size, however, salaries show an upward trend for 1938-39 but still continue to be lower in most cases than 1930-31.

The problem is affected in another way by the gradual increase of men to the teaching profession; men are not necessarily better teachers than women but, if they are to be retained, the inducements must be equal to those in other occupations. In the 40-year period from 1880 to 1920, according to the latest Biennial Survey of the United States Office of Education, there was a decrease in the proportion of men teachers from 42.8 per cent to 14.1 per cent. Since 1920 there has been gradual increase in the number of men teachers to 16.6 per cent in 1930, 19.1 per cent in 1934, and 20.6 per cent in 1936. This increase, however, is not nation-wide; from 1934 to 1936 the proportion of men decreased in Alabama, North Carolina, Oregon, South Dakota, and West Virginia.

Variety of Standards.

The great diversity of educational conditions to be found in the country have again been revealed in a report by the American Youth Commission of the American Council on Education. This report on Equal Educational Opportunity for Youth: A National Responsibility was prepared by Dr. Newton Edwards of the University of Chicago. The case for Federal aid is supported in this report by comprehensive data presented on birth rates and population trends, internal migration, economic status, educational expenditure, per capita income, and taxable wealth. A full and clear presentation is given of those inequalities in the educational opportunities of youth which arise from conditions beyond the control of the states or local communities.

Of the 48 states, 15 provide an education costing less than $60 per pupil — the sum necessary for a minimum defensible program of instruction. The present range is from $24 in Arkansas to $124 in New York. The differences are due to the proportion of children to be educated and of taxable wealth. The Southeastern States have 24 per cent of the nation's children to educate and in 1929 had only 10 per cent of the nation's income. A remedy cannot be found in revision of state tax systems, since the states providing the least education are already making the greatest effort. That the problem is national and not local is shown by the fact that about 40 per cent of the farm boys and girls who were 10 to 20 years old in 1920 had left the farm by 1930; much of the migration is across state lines. It is, therefore, a matter of concern for urban states that children of rural states should have an education substantially equal to that provided for their own children, since they depend for much of their population renewal and growth upon the rural states.

Federal Aid.

It is for these reasons that efforts have been continued to secure Federal aid for education with a view to correcting the variety of standards and the uneven distribution of educational opportunities. While none of the bills presented in the House of Representatives or in the Senate made any progress, reference should be made to the Harrison-Thomas-Larrabee bill which was presented in the Senate early in 1939 and sought to provide Federal aid for general purposes, improved teacher preparation, construction of school buildings, administration of state departments of education, adult education, and rural library service, and for cooperative educational research, demonstration, and administration, as well as for the education of children residing in Federal reservations and at foreign stations. The bill proposed the appropriation of $40,000,000 for the fiscal year ending 1940, rising by annual increments of $20,000,000 to $140,000,000 in 1945.

Educational Movements.

In the field of educational theory and practice attention is being devoted in the main to the problems at the secondary and college level, due to a growing consciousness of the youth problem. Experiments at the college level have been proceeding for some time in such institutions as Bennington, Sarah Lawrence, Stephens, Rollins, and the University of Minnesota. The movement was stimulated by a discussion at The Institute of Administrative Officers of Higher Institutions, held at the University of Chicago in the summer of 1934. The report of these proceedings, published under the title of General Education: Its Nature, Scope, and Essential Elements, became the basis of further discussions all over the country, and as summarized in the Thirty-Eighth Yearbook, Part II, of the National Society for the Study of Education, on General Education in the American College, 1939, the movement arises out of dissatisfaction with existing higher education, the overemphasis on specialization, a better knowledge of the student body, the youth problem, and a desire to give youth an education which will better equip them to solve such problems as those that baffle present-day society.

While there is as yet no unity or agreement on the type of general education to be given, the starting-points for its development are found in the conception of man and society and the conception of the learning process. Under the first of these emphasis is placed on the worth of the individual, on his relations with other personalities, and the desirability of common understandings as the basis of intelligent and willing cooperation in social well-being and social action. Under the second it is accepted that effective learning results from activities that are felt to be vital, leading frequently to bringing together instructional materials from several of the conventionally separated subject-matter fields.

General education should accordingly be broad, scholarly, dynamic, democratic, systematic, and generalized. The purpose sought is to develop insights in the student resulting from a comprehension of the relatedness of things which facilitates the interpretation of new experiences and the solution of new problems with understanding and flexibility. (See also PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION.)

Congress on Education for Democracy.

One of the important educational events of the year was the Congress on Education for Democracy organized under the auspices of Teachers College, Columbia University, and held in New York in the middle of August. What gives this Congress importance is not the volume of discussions on the varied problems of democracy, but the fact that it sought to bring together laymen and educators representative of all phases of American life to discuss the question: 'What is the responsibility of education for the defense and advance of Democracy?' The Congress was accordingly an attempt to bring laymen and educators together to discuss their common problems, since in a democracy decisions in the last analysis will be made by the people. The Congress was the outcome of conferences held now for the past three years at Teachers College under the auspices of the Lay Council; it is hoped that this Congress will stimulate the organization of similar conferences in different parts of the country. The Congress was at the same time planned to clarify the meaning of democracy and to define the obligations of education to promote and advance it at a time of crisis and challenge such as the present.

The Congress was attended by delegates from national organizations representing business, industry, labor, agriculture, voters, advertisers, and other activities making up a wide cross-section of all phases of American life. Matching the total of official delegates of lay organizations there was an equal number of educators representing all fields of education. In addition there were a number of distinguished representatives from Great Britain, Poland and Sweden. The French delegates were unable to attend because of the political crisis.

The deliberations of the Congress were divided between general meetings and sixteen closed seminars. The keynote of the Congress was sounded in a letter from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to Dr. William F. Russell, Dean of Teachers College, Columbia University, and Chairman of the Congress. 'Everyone,' wrote the President, 'knows that democracy can not long stand unless its foundation is kept constantly reinforced through the processes of education. What is not so universally understood is that colleges and universities have a responsibility to imbue prospective teachers with a clear appreciation of the part they must play in this process. Education for democracy can not merely be taken for granted. What goes on in the schools every hour of the day, on the playground and in the classroom, whether reflecting methods of control by the teacher, or opportunities for self-expression by the pupils, must be checked against the fact that the children are growing up to live in a democracy. That the schools make worthy citizens is the most important responsibility placed upon them. May I congratulate you and express the hope that as a result of the Congress on Education for Democracy, a great wave of interest will spread over the land out of which will grow more and more effective methods of bringing to pass our cherished ideal of democracy.'

The themes of the general meetings were: Democracy and Its Challenge; Democracy in Other Lands; The Contribution of Religion to Education for Democracy; Present Educational Opportunities for Rural Youth in a Democracy; Democracy at Work; The Contribution of Higher and Adult Education to Democracy; The Contributions of Youth Organizations to Democratic Life; and Democracy Moves Forward.

The sixteen seminars, organized in small groups of laymen and educators and conducted by members of the Teachers College faculty, devoted their discussions to the following topics; (1) What is Democracy?; (2) Influences Changing Democracy; (3) Education for Citizenship; (4) Education for Economic Life; (5) Education for Personal Relationship; (6) Adaptation of Education to Individual Differences; (7) Freedom in Teaching; (8) Freedom of Teachers in Civic Life; (9) Education and Government; (10) Education and Minorities; (11) Education by Nonscholastic Agencies; (12) Study of Foreign Systems; (13) Adaptation to Population Changes; (14) Ethical and Religious Education; (15) Democracy of Culture; and (16) What Shall Be Done?

Significant as the Congress was in itself in providing an opportunity for the exchange of views between representatives of American and other democracies, between representatives of all phases of American life, and between representatives of different creeds and races, of much more serious moment are the suggestions which came from the last seminar for the continuance in different parts of the country of the work so well begun in the Congress. Should this work be continued along the lines hoped for by the organizers of the Congress, there will be a clear call for the lay public and for professional educators to define the main objective of American education — the preservation and advancement of the ideals of American democracy challenged both from within and from without. The proceedings of the Congress have been published under the title Education for Democracy (Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1939).

Education and the War in Europe.

The outbreak of the war in Europe coincided with the opening of the school year. Many college presidents in their opening addresses to students urged on them their obligation to devote attention to their studies which in the long run will prepare them better to meet their obligations as citizens of a democracy. The Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association issued a pamphlet in October on American Education and the War in Europe, based on 'results of investigations, the combined judgment and the sincere convictions of the members of the Commission.' Repression of discussion and abdication of responsibility were rejected, since 'at such a time as this, the schools should serve as centers of community deliberation with reference to the pending issues. . . . The education of a free people should know no undebatable propositions. Confusion, ignorance, and indifference are not the same as impartiality.' Discussion should be kept on an educational basis and discriminating judgment is essential on the principle that 'the ability to detect propaganda and to deal effectively with it is always an important qualification for the citizen of a democracy.' The interests of the American people are paramount and the schools should make it clear by word and action that they are not partisan. Minority rights should be respected in the interests of maintaining the spirit of tolerance and fair play which American schools are obligated to foster. The protection of civil liberties requires continuous vigilance. The schools may be expected to cooperate with humanitarian causes provided that appeals come from nonpartisan American sources without involving judgment respecting the rights and issues of the present conflict. A program of research and publication is needed as the basis for careful study in schools and adult education of what happened to this country in the World War, how it became involved in it, what the consequences were, and what kind of a peace ensued. But the study of foreign policy should not displace attention to the unsolved problems of American democracy which are the greatest menace to the institutions and ideals which Americans seek to perpetuate. Cultural values should be recognized and protected. So far as questions of preparedness for the defense of the country are concerned, the situation provides an opportunity to the educational profession to help the American people in developing a consistent foreign policy. At the same time 'the ultimate line of defense is to be found in the loyalty, intelligence, health, technical skill, economic efficiency, morale, and character of our citizens,' who should through the schools be developed willingly and effectively to 'participate in the processes of democracy, to banish economic illiteracy, to establish a sense of civic responsibility, to develop habits of healthful living, to encourage appreciation for the intelligent conservation of the nation's natural resources, and to improve the technical and vocational skills of all the people.'

In its bi-monthly, Educational Policy, dated Oct. 15, 1939, the Commission in a further discussion of 'The Relation of Education to the International Situation' stated 'America can make no greater contribution to the well-being of humanity than to place before the world the stirring example of a democracy in action in a crisis.' See also ADULT EDUCATION; CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING; CHILD LABOR.

Construction of School Buildings.

See ARCHITECTURE.

Photography in Schools.

See PHOTOGRAPHY.