1939: Communism

Change in International Policies.

During the year 1939 Communism went through a complete change in its general policy. After the events of 1933, Communist procedure had been governed by the so-called Popular Front policy which influenced fundamentally the foreign relations of the Soviet Union, and the political and social attitude of the Communist parties in countries outside the Soviet Union. This policy had envisaged cooperation with democratic governments and parties against the growth and aggressiveness of Fascism and especially of National Socialism. In her foreign policy the Soviet Union had become one of the most active supporters of the system of collective security, and of the League of Nations, into which she had been admitted in 1934. She tried to cooperate with Great Britain, France, and other democratic nations in the effort to strengthen the system of collective security and to protect weaker nations against German, Italian and Japanese aggression. For that reason she supported the sanctions of the League of Nations against Italy after the latter had attacked Ethiopia, supported China against Japan, and rendered assistance to the Republican government in Spain, where Germans and Italians were assisting Franco. Corresponding to this foreign policy of the Soviet Union, the several Communist parties outside the Soviet Union had established so-called Popular Fronts, in which they tried to cooperate with liberals and progressives of all shades in supporting democracy against reactionary or Fascist forces. At the end of August 1939, however, this policy was completely reversed. The Soviet Union refused to sign treaties with Great Britain and France, and signed instead a treaty with its former enemy National Socialist Germany, which marked the beginning of a growing friendship between the two countries. From then on the 'capitalist imperialism' of the democracies became the main target of Communistic attacks, whereas the diplomatic and economic measures adopted by the National Socialist Government, in its war against the democracies, were on the whole warmly supported by the Soviet Government. In a similar way the Communist parties outside the Soviet Union broke up the Popular Front, attacked progressive liberalism and social democracy as they had done before 1933, and adapted their policy generally to the new foreign policy of the Moscow government.

Stalinism.

Beneath these changes there were deeper forces at work which have transformed the Soviet Union. On Jan. 21, 1939, the fifteenth anniversary of Lenin's death was celebrated. The great official orations of the day made it clear that the epoch had long passed when Stalin was regarded and celebrated only as the best and most faithful disciple of Lenin. Not only was the complete equality of the two Communist leaders now proclaimed, but the intention was clearly to regard Lenin as the forerunner of Stalin who alone had actually established Communism. Lenin was still regarded as the greatest theoretician, but Stalin as the unsurpassed practical statesman. A comparison of the Soviet Union in 1924 and in 1939 seemed to show clearly the immense progress which the Soviet Union has achieved under Stalin's leadership during the years which had passed since Lenin's death. Of similar importance was the rapid replacement of the older Communist leaders, who had grown up under Lenin's leadership, by a new generation which had been educated since the establishment of the Soviet Government and which now filled all the higher positions in administration and in industry. The rapid changes in the leading personnel in administration and in industry helped tighten the control of the central government on all branches of public and economic life in the Soviet Union. This, however, was not conducive to an increase in efficiency and productivity, and generally lowered the standards which had been built up partly with foreign help in the last years. The former leading Communists whose names had been well known outside the Soviet Union were almost completely replaced by younger men practically unknown.

Soviet Patriotism.

The insistence upon Soviet patriotism, which had been so noticeable in 1938, continued in 1939. Russia's heroic past was exalted in contemporary literature. In February 1939, Michael Glinka's well-known opera 'A Life for the Czar,' which had first been presented in 1836, was revived. The libretto, originally written by a Baltic baron, was rewritten so that the hero of the opera, Ivan Susanin, a 17th century peasant, who at the sacrifice of his own life delivered a detachment of invading Poles into the hands of armed peasants, did it all in the new version for the beloved Russian people and land.

Change in Internal Policy.

In March 1939, the Eighteenth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union met in Moscow, the first to be held in five years. This Congress accepted a new statute for the Party which in a certain way marked a step towards democratization. From then on the conditions for admission were set down as the same for members of all classes, whereas until then candidates were divided into four groups according to the supposed loyalty of their classes to the Soviet regime. Formerly candidates had to satisfy the Party, at the moment of their admission, that they had a detailed and exact knowledge of the Communist program. From now on this training in Marxist theory will not be required any more. Members of the Party received also the right of criticism, and the period of the purges was declared definitely closed. In his report to the Congress, Stalin declared that the Party numbered 1,000,000 members, 270,000 less than five years ago, a fact which is to be explained by the purges. Now that the purge was declared successfully concluded, Yezhov, the man most responsible for its execution, was in disfavor.

The change of policy showed itself also in a much greater toleration of religion. Emelian Yaroslavinski, the leader of the atheist movement in the Soviet Union delivered at the Congress a speech on the cultural situation without once attacking the Church and religion. All previous efforts of combating religion by governmental measures were discontinued, and the atheistic propagandists were admonished not to hurt the religious feelings of the believers. The role of Christianity in Russian history underwent a revaluation. The famous saying that religion is an opiate for the people was softened in the sense that Christianity is, among all religions, an opiate with some good effects, and it was recognized that it had played a progressive role in the struggle against oppression and had helped to prepare the spirit of rising democracy. Nevertheless, it was declared, the party could not accept the gospel of indiscriminate love because of the necessity 'to sweep Fascism from the face of the earth.' This attitude was in agreement with the policy of cooperation with the western democracies which had, at least officially, been emphasized in the first half of 1939. The change of Soviet policy and of the Party line, which came about in the late summer, also changed completely the Communist attitude towards democracy.

Communism in the United States.

The Communist Party in the United States also followed this development. Whereas until the end of August the Communists in the United States had bitterly attacked Great Britain and France for not standing up against Fascist aggression and for not protecting weaker nations, and had demanded America's participation in efforts to check Fascist aggression and to establish a strong anti-aggressor front, the Communists in America began in September to speak of the present European War as a purely imperialist war. They suddenly took the lead in isolationist sentiment in the United States. Great Britain and France, who had been vehemently blamed for abandoning Czechoslovakia, were now even more vehemently blamed for not coming to the help of Poland when Poland was attacked by National Socialist Germany. Germany's bid for peace on her own terms, which meant a super-Munich that would leave Germany in complete control of Poland and of Czechoslovakia, was supported not only officially by the Soviet Union, but also by the American Communists and their head, Earl Browder. (See also UNITED STATES: Politics.)

Effects of Russo-German Pact.

In Foreign Countries.

The pact between the Soviet government and National Socialist Germany has generally weakened the sympathies of liberals for the Soviet Union and has contributed to a disruption of the Communist parties outside the Soviet Union. In Italy, Japan, and Spain, the Communist Party remains strictly forbidden. In the democratic countries, especially France and Scandinavia, the position of the Communist parties was seriously impaired as the result of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union. In France the Communist Party was dissolved as soon as it became clear that it supported Germany in her fight against France and Great Britain. The attack by the Soviet Union upon Finland at the beginning of December still further diminished sympathy for the Communist party in the United States and in the other democratic nations. At the same time the operations against Finland revealed certain weaknesses of the Soviet military and supply organizations and made it apparent that the Soviet Union was less of a military danger than had been previously supposed. (See also FRANCE; GERMANY.)

In Soviet Russia.

It was probably this feeling of weakness and the need for security which had at first motivated the reversal of Soviet foreign policy. The Communist Government wished to follow a policy of isolation which would keep the country at peace, while at the same time affording the opportunity of occupying certain strategic outposts which would make the Soviet Union impregnable against any future attack by outside nations — the fear which had dominated Soviet policy during the last twenty years. The agreement with Germany seemed to offer the opportunity of remaining at peace and of acquiring better strategic positions, the acquisition of which Germany did not oppose as part of the bargain. On the strength of her agreement with Germany, the Soviet Union acquired the eastern part of Poland, inhabited by Ukrainian and White Russian peasants who felt themselves more akin to the Ukrainians and White Russians in the Soviet Union than to the Poles. These parts of Poland were incorporated in the Soviet Union, and Communism was introduced there. In the three Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which had formed part of the former Russian Empire, the Soviet Government acquired the right of establishing military, naval and air bases in certain strategic points. However, the independence of these states was preserved and Communism has not been introduced there. (See also U.S.S.R.)

The Soviet War against Finland.

Finland refused the demands of the Soviet Union for the cession of certain strategic positions. Thereupon the Soviet Union not only attacked Finland to force her to accept the Soviet demands, but also established a revolutionary Communist Government of Finland and declared this to be the only government of the country with which the Soviets would negotiate. The war between the Soviet Union and Finland was still continuing at the beginning of 1940. As the result of Soviet aggression against Finland, the League of Nations expelled the Soviet Union; and the United States and other democratic nations came to the help of Finland by supplying arms and relief funds. These events drove the Soviet Union closer to Germany who openly supported the Soviet Union in the attack against Finland. (See also FINLAND.)

Communist Influence in Balkans and the Far East.

A possible expansion of the Soviet Union and of Communist influence into the Balkans, where Bulgaria seemed ready to welcome it, threatened to encounter the resistance of Germany's other ally, Italy. In the Far East, Japan had taken before August 1939 a most determined anti-Communist stand. Negotiations were reported between Japan, Germany and Italy, to convert the anti-Comintern pact into a definite military alliance against the Soviet Union. But the change of National Socialist policy towards the Soviet Union brought about also a certain shift in the attitude of Japan, where efforts were made to establish friendlier relations with the Soviet Union. These efforts were still continuing at the beginning of 1940.

The Chinese Communists continued, even in the fall of 1939, to support the Government of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek against Japan, and the Soviet Government apparently continued to supply arms to a certain extent to the Chinese Government and to help to keep up its resistance against Japan. But towards the end of the year rumors increased as to the possibility of a partition of China between the Soviet Union and Japan, similar to the partition of Poland between the Soviet Union and Germany.

Conclusion.

Thus it may be said that, as the result of the seemingly complete change of Soviet policy in August 1939, the situation of Communism in Eastern Europe, in the Far East, and in the Western Democracies, remained unsettled at the end of the year. Its future seems at present closely bound up with the outcome of the European War. In Spain the complete collapse of the Republican government on March 28, 1939, appeared to have settled, for the time, the fate of Communism in that country.