1939: Chemistry

Chemically speaking, the year 1939 was reasonably prolific as measured by new products and progress in general. The chemical companies maintained their position as consistent performers in the payment of dividends, reduction of prices, and enviable records as to wages and hours and minimum of labor difficulties.

Textiles and Fabrics.

Nylon.

Although announced as a discovery late in 1938, the synthetic resin nylon should be regarded as a product of 1939. It is an example of the work which is most typical in the chemical industry. The first of the truly synthetic fibers, nylon was developed as the result of fundamental research undertaken primarily to supply in the literature missing data with respect to the polymerization of organic chemicals. This work began about 1930 and on Dec. 15, 1939, the first commercial unit for the production of the fiber began operations at Seaford, Del. Those who have previously discussed the time factor in the earning of profits from investment in research have set seven years as the average interval. Here is a case of nine or ten years in a difficult field, with profits yet to be earned.

In the research on polymerization it was found that certain small molecules could be linked together to form molecules of comparatively great length. While removing molten samples of this compound from an experimental still, researchers noted that the molten mass could be drawn out in the form of a long fiber and that even after the fiber was cold it could be further drawn to several times its former length. Such a phenomenon had never before been observed, and the incident led to further research toward a practical goal, while the general study on the polymerization of organic chemicals continued. The result, after many experiments, is the polymer made principally from adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine to which the name 'nylon' was given.

The great strength of nylon, its elasticity, fineness of fiber, the ability to make it also in the form of bristles, sheets, etc., have attracted wide attention. It has been commercially available, first, as bristles for tooth and hair brushes, for fish leaders and lines, and for sewing thread. Fair quantities produced by the experimental plant in the form of fiber have found their way into hosiery and, more lately, underwear, so that many severe trials have been possible. The resistance of the thread to breakage and to attrition makes it unique and promises to provide for the first time a successful competitor for natural silk. Dyeing problems, at first difficult, have been overcome and it was announced that more than five hundred dyes were available, to give this new synthetic fiber such tints as market or fancy might demand.

Vinyon.

During the year another synthetic fiber made its appearance, named 'vinyon.' This depends upon the early vinyl resins as its raw material, and they in turn upon acetylene and chlorine. Vinyon is a thermoplastic, and at present its future seems to lie more in the field of industrial fibers than in that of wearing apparel. Its resistance to many alkalies and acids, in the strength commonly met in industrial plants, marks it as one of the most successful filter cloths yet devised. In a fused form on cotton fibers it has made possible the first successful cotton felt. Its use as a binding agent promises to make cotton felt the first real competitor of wool felt.

Ethyl Cellulose Rayon.

Ethyl cellulose rayon, is a new textile fiber, more resistant to alkalies than many others. This is advantageous in laundering. Ethyl cellulose and also methyl cellulose, made this year for the first time in America, also have a wide range of application, particularly in the manufacture of paper, cosmetics, and food products as well as a finishing material for other textiles. So used it assists in improving the effect of dyes and improves the resistance of other fibers to alkali.

Rubber as Filtration Material.

Another interesting material for filtration is that made with rubber, utilizing its well established advantages of durability and chemical resistance. One material thus produced contains specific numbers and sizes of pores throughout its area. Another is a porous membrane having an extremely large number of minute openings. Obviously various combinations of pore sizes, numbers per square inch, gauges, and rubber compounds permit a flexibility in manufacture to meet the widely differing operating conditions in industry.

Processing of Textiles.

Advances were made in the processing of textiles to make them more moisture-repellant and to protect them from stains without interfering with the porous nature of fabrics. This is important in preserving proper ventilation for the body. Fabrics treated resist spotting by mud, ink, and ordinary liquids, causing stains, besides retaining longer their original freshness and are more subject to satisfactory cleaning. The use of synthetic resins in textile finishing to produce more creaseless fabrics also was extended.

Printing of Textiles.

Improved printing of textiles and new coloring of paper stock was obtained by colloidized dyes. This is one of the examples of the spreading use of the colloid mill in the chemical industry. Formerly ordinary grinding methods were used. Now it is possible to prepare water-insoluble lakes and vat dyes in such a fine state of subdivision that when added to water colloidal solutions result. In another type of printing, lacquers have long been used; but they were deficient principally in fastness to washing and in crocking. Pigmented synthetic resins, emulsified in water, have been prepared for this work. They are applied to the cloth on a standard printing machine and permanently fixed by a short cure. This method eliminates certain steps in processing, makes possible the absorption of the dye immediately after printing, and the use of very fine line engravings. Low costs combined with excellent fastness to light, washing, and crocking are obtainable.

Synthetic Resins for Miscellaneous Uses.

In addition to the synthetic resins so far mentioned, reference should be made to special resins developed for bonding mineral and glass wool, and others for brake linings. Further, an oil-soluble styrene resin for air-drying paints was introduced and further developments occurred in the use of certain resins for mounting biological and other specimens for permanent preservation. These resins are clear and colorless. The effect is pleasing and from all appearances the preservation will be perfect.

Improvements in dentures through the use of acrylic resins, and the appearance of Methyl methacrylate (trade name, Lucite) in forms to convey light to points desired by surgeons and dentists should be added to the list. The property possessed by these resins of conveying light without regard to the number of turns or angles from one end of a rod to the other makes them particularly valuable for this, not to mention the ease with which they can be sterilized. Large letters were fashioned from such resins for signs at the world's fairs and they began to be used for all sorts of decorative purposes, including toilet articles. (See also PLASTICS.)

Experiments went forward in the use of laminated plastics for the rapid production of airplane wings and fuselage of aircraft, and new plastics were produced from bagasse by hydrolysis in the presence of aniline and from waste lignin, present in the sulfite liquors of the paper industry. These appeared particularly interesting because of their very low cost and could be used in quantity where color is not a controlling factor. These resins are dark shades or black. (See also PLASTICS.)

Glass Products.

Fiberglas.

During 1939 Fiberglas made notable strides, particularly in the use of color for some of the fibers. Highly decorative materials in soft shades of blue and ecru made their appearance. Besides winning a market as electrical insulation, the lighter weight cloths of glass began to find acceptance on the part of hotel and restaurant owners because not only are the patterns attractive, but the material remains unaffected by fruit juices which stain, and cigarettes which burn, ordinary table linen. We have so far seen no record of lives saved by the use of glass sheets for those who insist on smoking in bed, but the possibility remains. Draperies of the material have made their appearance; and to mark the first birthday of the organization, a limited number of Fiberglas neckties, which look very well when tied, were distributed.

Fiberglas cloth has also entered the field of filtration. Its resistance to many of the fluids to be filtered makes it desirable; and to maintain the size of the pores the cloth is sintered.

All-Glass Pump.

Glass found another unique use in the form of an all-glass pump. Such equipment is particularly desirable in the chemical industry. It is resistant to nearly all corrosive chemicals; the transparent parts facilitate close inspection; and the pump is just as efficient as those made of other materials.

Shrunk Glass.

A new type of glass came on the market. Known as 'shrunk glass,' it is prepared by first dissolving out a large percentage by an acid treatment, after which the glass is subjected to a second heating, during which it shrinks to nearly half its first dimensions. The resulting ware is comparable to fused silica in its physical properties and offers a less expensive material for a great many industrial uses.

High-Test Safety Glass.

The new high-test safety glass has received much attention. It resulted from the cooperative effort of five large manufacturers and claims distinction because of the synthetic resin used in holding the two plates of glass together. This resin is highly elastic and retains a satisfactory degree of this elasticity even at low temperatures, something which has not been attained heretofore. This property greatly increases the safety factor at ordinary temperatures since the resin absorbs a considerable portion of the force of any blow and is essential for safety at low temperatures, because other resins become almost as brittle as glass when very cold and hence afford no protection whatever.

Glareless Glass.

Glass without glare is most welcome for store windows and other places where protection with non-reflection at the same time is desirable. At the beginning of 1939 two groups independently announced having found how to use very thin films to prevent reflection and thus render glass invisible. Very thin films are produced by depositing single layers of molecules, each layer with a thickness of about 0.0000001 inch until a thickness equivalent to one-quarter wave length of visible light has been built up. This means 42 molecular layers and the thickness is 0.000004 inch. During 1939 the technique of producing these very thin films was improved, but the process is not yet commercial and the films cannot be handled. So far, such layers of molecules have been used as gages for measuring thickness. To prevent the reflection of light by the glass, the film preferably has a refractive index value which is the square root of the refractive index of the glass.

Improvements in Gasoline.

Developments of new refining processes to increase the production of high-octane gasolines for military and commercial aviation were announced. Six plants in the United States now have an annual capacity of some 37,000,000 gallons, with other plants being planned or under consideration, making a total capacity of 125,000,000 gallons. The present consumption of aviation gasoline is about 20,000,000 gallons annually, but with the new processes in operation a potential productive capacity of 6,000,000,000 gallons of aviation gasoline is predicted. One of these new fuels is neohexane, produced under a pressure as high as 5,000 pounds to the square inch and at a temperature of about 950° F.

The growing use of tetracthyllead as an antiknock reagent led to a new plant at Baton Rouge, La., the second in the United States, and this is in process of substantial enlargement. During the year new cracking processes were announced. Greater flexibility is claimed for them, thereby making it possible to produce fuels or lubricants more nearly according to specifications, with somewhat higher yields than have heretofore been possible.

Advances in Metallurgy.

Some notable advances have been made in the field of metals and metallurgy. A process was developed for the use of low-grade manganese ores such as those available in Cuba, and the same process is useful with ores in the United States. We now import some 90 per cent of the manganese used in the manufacture of steel and a supply near home is essential. The new process makes importation much less important than it has been.

Tungsten ores were found in Coahuila, Mexico, and are refined at Eagle Pass, Texas. The Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior, undertook an extensive investigation of domestic deposits of strategic minerals, following the outbreak of the European War. Minerals constitute the most important section of the remaining list of strategic materials, which from time to time is shortened through the application of the results of research.

A new alloy called Kennametal was introduced. It is composed of tungsten, titanium, and carbon and finds its principal application as a cutting tool. Several patents were issued as the result of research undertaken to improve the corrosion-resistance of stainless steel to sea water. Silver in small amounts is the added metal.

There have been advances in the use of carbon blocks for the lining of tanks and other equipment and for the formation of other pieces of equipment, either from this inert material or using it as a lining. Clad metals have made progress because they offer the advantage of the strength, weight, and low cost of some such material as steel, combined with the corrosion-resistance afforded by the relatively thin veneer of a suitable alloy which is an integral part of the unit. Thin sheets of stainless steel are now cemented by a special process to a mineral backing such as a thin section of concrete, producing what is called steel lumber. There is also a new form of filter, using, in place of filter cloths, piano wire properly spaced and held taut in but one direction.

Synthetic Vitamins.

The family of synthetic vitamins continued to grow. Vitamin K was the latest of these to emerge from the laboratories of American chemists. The first successful synthetic was reported in July, and now five forms of vitamin K have been synthesized. The material is valuable for its anti-hemorrhagic properties, though unfortunately it appears to be without effect in cases of hemophilia. The steady progress in the synthesis of members of the vitamin family is noteworthy when we remember how recently vitamins were little short of being an enigma. While their effects were known in some instances, their identity long remained obscure; and the research by which their structural formulas were established prior to synthesis, followed by the synthesis itself, affords examples of some of the best research that has been done in modern times.

Vitamin D has been produced from ergosterol of corn oil, and cholesterol of wool fat has been found to be a source of the same vitamin. A patent was issued on crystalline insulin. Gelatin was found to relieve fatigue and greatly increase energy.

Medicinal Agents.

The century has seen developed and introduced a number of amazing remedies and reagents for the use of the physician. Few, if any, have been so important as sulfanilamide and related compounds. Of these suleadyridine, found so efficacious in combating the many forms of pneumonia, including those for which there have been no serums, deserves special mention. Of the several hundred compounds that have been produced in the past three years, only a relatively small number have proved to be more effective than sulfanilamide, but the research goes on. It has been predicted that in the near future we may expect the discovery of the architectural designs of molecules which will be capable of annihilating all disease-causing bacteria. There are still lacking data enabling a satisfactory correlation between structure of the sulfanilamides and their effectiveness, but with the number of highly trained men active in this field and the results that have been obtained, there is reason to expect ultimate success.

During the year a new series of metathetical organic reactions produced catalytically was described. These approach perfection in efficiency because there is no loss through the formation of by-products or wastes which are ordinarily unavoidable in organic chemical reactions.

In the borderland between chemistry and medicine several important announcements were made. Certain sex hormones were synthesized, as was threonine, one of the proteins essential to life. Judging from the cost of the first synthesized material, it would cost $900 a pound to produce.

Management of Clinical Laboratories.

The year saw open discussion of the very important point as to whether clinical laboratories, the work of which is vital to the diagnostician, must be managed by members of the medical profession, with well-trained chemists declared to be ineligible for such service. The question is still highly controversial. But in the attempts to settle it a public service is being rendered because most of the tests now made to help determine a patient's condition and to indicate a program of treatment are carried out by technicians believed by many to be without that degree of chemical training which should be possessed by one undertaking work of such vital importance. Plans were perfected during the year for the improvement of conditions, largely by an effort to determine the exact training needed and how best to marshal available forces under really competent leadership to carry out this work.

Pulp and Paper.

Several important trends in the pulp and paper industry are to be noted. The steady improvement in the color of white sulfate, or bleached kraft as it is sometimes called, has brought its use into fine papers, replacing sulfite, more and more of which is going into esterification as in the manufacture of rayon. The expansion of kraft or the sulfate pulp papers in the South has been rapid and has created a growing demand for salt cake, formerly a by-product of the nitric acid industry when Chilean nitrate was treated with sulfuric acid to produce it. We now derive our nitric acid from the oxidation of synthetic ammonia. Much of our salt cake has been imported of late from Germany. But under conditions prevailing the latter part of 1939, it became possible to exploit natural resources of sodium sulfate, theretofore at a disadvantage because of freight rates; and the practice of recovering sodium sulfate from the viscose industry spread. The excess soda in the viscose sirup produces sodium sulfate in the acid setting bath and has now become an important source for this chemical compound. Meanwhile one of the alkali manufacturers perfected a method for making a synthetic salt cake from soda ash and sulphur. While this is not a true sodium sulfate, it is its equivalent in the sulfate pulp process.

Industrially speaking, it is well to know that the long-discussed paper mill at Lufkin, Texas, designed to produce newsprint from Southern woods, was put under construction with operations scheduled to begin late in 1939 or early in 1940. This comes at a time when much thought is being given to the pulp situation.

New Applications and Processes.

One of the gas companies operating in a great metropolis announced the chemical elaboration of water gas by-products and erected a plant for the production of a series of chemical compounds. One of the rubber companies seeking improved and less expensive methods for making molds in which tire casings and similar materials are cured, developed a new electroforming process for depositing iron and building up these molds to the desired pattern, weight, and strength. The process is applicable to much of the work in forming and casting art objects, including such fine detailed work as the reproduction of photographs.

A method has been perfected for the production of absorptive charcoal from pecan shells, and patents were issued during the year covering the manufacture of an absorptive type of charcoal suitable for gas masks. The effort, of course, is to free the United States from depending upon coconut shells as a raw material for that type of charcoal required in gas masks.

A development of growing interest is that of the use of dehydrated castor oil as a drying oil in paints and varnishes. The United States has used annually large quantities of Chinawood oil for this purpose. With the war in the Far East importation of sufficient quantities of tung oil has been difficult. The groves of tung trees, many thousands of acres in extent, in the South have begun to bear and the oil has been shipped in tank car lots. However, the total percentage available is small. Now comes the development of dehydrated castor oil, it having been found that when dehydrated a state of unsaturation is created and this oil becomes useful by itself or when mixed with tung oil in the paint and varnish industry. Most of the castor oil is imported from South America but the possibilities of establishing another crop in the United States are interesting, if indeed not bright. The castor bean plant is perennial in certain South American countries but so far as determined is an annual in the United States. This difference is considerable when interpreted in terms of costs.

Considerable advances have been made in the deodorization of vegetable oils.

Using vanillin, now made from waste sulfite liquor, a new chemical was prepared, trade-named Santo-mask, which when added to paints, varnishes, and enamels overcomes objectionable odor and irritating fumes. These are especially evident in interior painting; the new material neutralizes these odors, leaving no distinctive odor of its own.

A new chemical fire extinguisher uses gas under pressure to force easily decomposed solid sodium bicarbonate through a hose or pipe and a nozzle. Either one of two sources of pressure is used — liquid carbon dioxide in portable hand extinguishers, and compressed nitrogen in permanent installations. The bicarbonate is treated to prevent caking and to make it more easily decomposed by the fire. A stream of gas and powder is directed at the fire and the advantages include freedom from freezing, the avoidance of noxious fumes and water damage, and the permanence of the charge as compared with the ordinary acid-actuated extinguishers. The device can be used to replace water sprinkler systems.

Silicosis Preventive.

A discovery of importance was that a film of hydrated oxide of aluminum can be used to cover quartz particles and thereby prevent silicosis. If the aluminum powder is present to the extent of about one per cent by weight of quartz dust in the air, silicosis is completely prevented. In the lungs the aluminum forms a surface film which prevents toxic effects because the aluminum is insoluble.

Improvements in Curing of Tobacco.

Improvements in the curing of tobacco were announced. By using an air-conditioning system, so much time is saved that the capacity of the barns is doubled. And by determining the temperature and humidity conditions required for the best results, the art can be reduced to a science with a saving in labor and fuel; and limits beyond which the quality of tobacco deteriorates set up to prevent losses.

Foods.

There have been evolved improved and suitable dyes, as well as a method of application, for the coloring of oranges which, though ripe are pale in color, thus reducing consumer demand. Special dyes have in the past been produced and approved by the Food and Drug Administration as food colorers. These two, however, are the only new food colorers which have been admitted to the list for many years.

A new container for foods made its appearance in the form of a very thin rubber sack in which cuts of meat or whole quarters may be placed. Upon the application of vacuum this cover shrinks to an exact fit, thereby preventing evaporation, freezer burn, and other losses in the case of meats.

Another valuable process made its debut in 1939. Its purpose is to improve the grade of meat, and it is based upon maintaining a storage temperature that permits the growth of enzymes at the same time sterile conditions are maintained by the use of carbon dioxide and ultraviolet. The result is destruction or tendering of the connective tissue and a rise in the grade of the meat.

Other New Developments.

Development of the method for producing a thin flexible film of bentonite clay without binder proceeded with a view to producing a mica substitute applicable in some industries. An optical glass with the highest index of refraction and the lowest dispersion ever obtained was perfected during 1939. A new family of chemical compounds appeared in the nitroparaffins. These are produced by the nitration of some of the paraffin hydrocarbons and produce materials valuable as solvents, useful in the preventing as well as in the promotion of gelation, as in rubber latex and similar uses. It was also announced that natural gas could be nitrated, offering the possibility of certain kinds of explosives.

Silica aerogels made their commercial appearance and were offered as improved insulating materials, as bodying agents and antitacks of inks, lacquers, and varnishes, and to be used generally where bulk without material increase in weight is sought. Compounds to prevent the oxidation of soap and its rancidity or discoloration were also offered.

Cordura rayon, previously used in heavy tires for buses and trucks, was introduced in casings for passenger cars, offering new competition to cotton cords. A new process for black electroplating became available under the name of Moly-black. The deposited metal is composed of molybdenum and nickel. It is jet black, very hard, and has such throwing power that good plating is obtained even in deeply recessed places. Mysterious explosions of gasoline storage tanks in England gave rise to investigations; scientists reported that bacteria capable of fermenting kerosene into explosive gases were the probable cause.

Wetting agents found new applications in dentifrices, shampoos, and textile and laundering industries.

The experiment of growing melons with special alcoholic flavors, procured by introducing liqueurs and wine into their stems, was conducted successfully but to the disappointment of the grower, for while certain flavors were produced, there was no kick.

Organization Changes in the Industry.

The Dow Chemical Co. purchased the Great Western Electrochemical Co. The Bakelite Corp., pioneer in the field of synthetic resins, was merged with the Union Carbide & Carbon Corp. The International Agricultural Corp. announced the material expansion of its subsidiary, the Union Potash & Chemical Co., so that increased production of potash from American sources might go forward without delay. A new generator for the production of carbon dioxide in excess of 98 per cent purity as against the 30 to 35 per cent derived from ordinary kilns, was erected to produce the gas for dry ice. There were steady advances in pumps, high-pressure valves, automatic equipment for control of plants, recorders, and similar equipment. It is important to note that the four regional laboratories authorized for the Department of Agriculture for the purpose of promoting investigations of the non-food uses of agricultural products got under way so far as structure and organization of staff were concerned.

Progress in Chemicals since World War.

Twenty-five years ago there was much concern because imports of many technical and fine chemicals were stopped, and industry suffered from the ensuing shortage. It is a tribute to chemical progress in the United States that with war again raging in Europe we find a very different condition. The whole world was awakened to the value of applied science, particularly chemistry, by the World War; and the United States in particular began to develop chemical industry, with a view to making it more self-sufficient. The result is that in 1939 there were abundantly available dyes of the highest quality, many of them of American origin; medicinals and pharmaceuticals to meet the nation's requirements; satisfactory lines of synthetic perfumes and flavors; photographic chemicals; and other well-known products of the synthetic organic chemical industry. Within three months of Sept. 1, 108 technical and chemically pure chemicals previously imported were made in the United States to meet requirements; and in practically all instances whether or not such materials are regularly manufactured has been a question of economics, and not of scientific or technical knowledge.

Similarly in the last few years methods for recovering iodine from brines and bitterns occurring domestically have been perfected. Synthetic camphor has been produced in quantities adequate for all demands, with turpentine used as the raw material; not only has a technical grade been produced for the chemical industry, but a U.S.P. grade for pharmacy and medicine as well. A plant has been erected for the production on a large scale of urea of remarkable purity. This is important in fertilizers, as well as a raw material for the manufacture of one great class of resins, not to mention smaller quantities found useful in medicine. The curtailment of importations is also reflected in increased activity in the manufacture of potassium chlorate required particularly by the match industry and expansion of plants producing salts of potassium for agricultural purposes.

Honors and Awards.

Among the honors of the year in the field of chemistry, the following may be noted. The Nobel Prize was awarded to Adolph Butenandt of Berlin and Leopold Ruzicka of Zurich for their work on sex hormones, but under the laws of Germany Butenandt was unable to accept. The Perkin Medal for outstanding work in industrial chemistry in the United States was awarded to Walter S. Landis; the Schoellkopf Medal to C. F. Vaughn; the William H. Nichols Medal to J. H. Hildebrand; the Willard Gibbs Medal to D. D. Van Slyke; the Chemical Industry Medal to R. E. Wilson; the Borden Award to L. S. Palmer; the Eli Lilly and Company Award to George Wald; the Edward Goodrich Acheson Medal to Francis C. Frary; and the Herty Medal to Frank K. Cameron. The Standard Oil Development Corp, was given the Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Award for achievement in chemical engineering. See also BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY; HORTICULTURE.