1938: Naval Science, American

The Changed Outlook.

The year 1938 was an epochal one for the United States Navy: it marked a distinct change in the national attitude toward our sea defense and security from invasion. The Navy now faces an era of unprecedented expansion; for the international situation has been conclusive proof of how our Utopian dreams of world peace may be shattered, how little dependence may be placed in the solemn promises of aggressor nations, and how necessary it is for our national security that we have adequate protective forces.

American sea power has suffered since the signing of the Limitation of Naval Armaments Treaty in 1922. The active fleet has been maintained at a high level of efficiency in respect to both material and personnel; but for a period of twelve years there has been little new construction added to the fleet with consequently little opportunity for experimentation in actual building.

Need of a Progressive Building Policy.

Lack of a progressive building policy is a fundamental naval weakness of a democracy. Our sporadic building spurts call for mass production before time is given for proper experimentation and development in the many scientific fields that have a direct bearing on the ultimate efficiency of the finished product.

The ingenuity of the Navy overcomes this manifest weakness by rectifying errors in new construction as they become manifest to the operating forces; but it is an expensive procedure and, furthermore, causes the loss of much time in getting the vessels into the active fleet. It also seriously handicaps the actual training of the officers and crew of a ship in preparing for war-time operation.

A modern man-of-war is a most complex and complicated machine, literally filled with precision instruments used in modern gunnery, fire control, and ship operation. The engineering plant of the new battleships will be comparable to a huge shore power plant, and the extensive electric plant calls for the greatest variation in electric equipment and electric auxiliaries. The actual hull construction of the modern ship has such complicated compartmentation, so necessary for defensive purposes, that the actual cost of construction is approximately double what it was twenty years ago for ships of equivalent tonnage.

The naval establishment has anticipated the needs of our Navy and has made every reasonable effort to develop the most modern methods in ship construction, engineering, and armament. The different Bureaus of the Navy Department have constantly been alive to the development of new features applicable to naval construction, a check is maintained on both domestic and foreign scientific development, and their own research departments work steadily to improve and devise new methods.

Progress in Marine Engineering and Naval Construction.

Marine engineering has made great strides since the World War. Much has been learned from the shore engineer. Modern shore establishments have advanced far in this line, and the marine engineer has been quick to recognize the superiority of shore engineering plants and to accept whatever improvements may be incorporated in a marine plant. Consultations with eminent civilian engineers have been of immeasurable benefit to the naval engineers in formulating the design of the latest ship motive plants — a design to give greater speeds with less weight of installation and more economical operative efficiency. It must, however, be recognized that everything that may be used ashore cannot be used afloat, as the conditions of installation and operation are at wide variance.

The naval constructor also has had a great field in which to expand scientific improvements in building. Collaboration with scientific and technical agencies, both within and without the Government, has brought about improvement of technical standards and the development of new materials. Great strides have been made in metallurgy. New metals have been developed that are lighter, have greater strength, and at the same time contribute to ease of fabrication. Modern welding methods have revolutionized ship construction with again a great saving in weight, a factor always confronting the naval constructor.

The new D. W. Taylor Model Basin designed to test ship models at various speeds, in order to ascertain the underwater resistance of different forms of underwater bodies and thus to determine the effectiveness of propeller design and the underbody construction of ships, is an outstanding project and a tribute to the ingenuity of the naval expert.

In the construction of the early dreadnaughts, the constructor was principally concerned with defensive armor to protect from high angle and horizontal gunfire. But with the advent of the long-range torpedo, effective submarines, and the aircraft threat, he had not only to give serious consideration to protection from gunfire but to add a complex system of compartmentation and outside blisters to give additional protection from mines, torpedoes, and near bomb-hits. In addition, he had to provide adequate protection from the aerial bomb by heavy transverse deck armor over all vital spaces. This necessitated extensive experimentation, using sections of a ship and subjecting them to explosive effects and thereby determining the type of structure necessary to give the margin of safety desired in construction to protect against any known offensive weapon.

Naval Ordnance.

The Bureau of Ordnance naturally operates under a veil of secrecy necessary for our national security; for this department is charged with the development of the offensive and defensive weapons of war, including armor and explosives. This is a technical bureau employing many experts both in the Navy and in the civilian field. Naval gunnery is in a class by itself, as the problem of firing great guns at sea is entirely different from the one confronting the artillery man. The first and most difficult obstacle is that naval guns are fired from a bouncing platform at estimated ranges. A further complication presents itself in the control of this fire when individual units are firing in close proximity where the ballistic data vary considerably.

The fire control installation of a man-of-war consists of the most complex electrical system in which are incorporated precision instruments that are human in character except that, like mechanical computators, they are not susceptible to human errors. These instruments are a tribute to the genius of the naval ordnance expert and to American mechanical ingenuity. This system, to provide against casualties, is necessarily backed up by a system that embodies simplicity.

Practically all ordnance equipment is Government-built except armor, which is made by the big steel companies under Government supervision.

Naval Communications.

Naval communications have presented many problems that have given the radio technician and the radio operator opportunity for scientific research. The problems of communication security and radio direction-finding by ships at sea have given both the naval and the civilian radio engineer a rare opportunity to exercise creative genius, and they both have been highly proficient in this expansive field that encompasses not only the world but space.

Naval Aircraft.

The field of naval science includes not only building and operating surface and subsurface craft of all types used in war at sea but the comprehensive art of designing, building, and operating aircraft, both heavier and lighter than air. The American Navy is distinctly air-minded. The naval officer has a full appreciation of the uses, advantages, and disadvantages of aircraft. He has had practical experience in their operation with the fleet at sea and is enthusiastic over the air component of the fleet. Also he is imbued with the necessity of having control of the air in the area of operations.

At the same time, the naval officer is firm in his belief that the battleship, when this strength is concentrated in the battle line, is the backbone of the Navy, our sea power, and is the locus of all offensive and defensive sea operations. He also feels that our fleet, as made up, will give an excellent account of itself in repelling any air attack.

The Navy has been a pioneer in the development of aircraft. American naval aviators flew under the Wright Brothers and Curtiss in the early days of American aviation.

The naval air force has worked in close harmony with the civilian designer, and the product of this cooperation is distinctly good. The material design of our aircraft and engines has kept pace with the world's best. The naval patrol plane is a monument to American aircraft design. The Navy, of course, had to develop the catapult to launch aircraft from combatant ships of the fleet; and at the same time it concentrated on the design of plane carriers to carry a maximum number of land planes, and perfected an organization for launching and taking them aboard in the minimum elapsed time.

The development of tactics to use aircraft to the best advantage under varied conditions is in itself a scientific achievement.

Lighter-than-air craft remain in the experimental stage. Both in design and operation, the Navy has outstanding men in this field; and while the Navy is dubious of the military effectiveness of this weapon, it is willing to carry on the necessary experimentation to prove the point conclusively, as it is, due to expense involved, a Governmental problem.

Naval aviation has continued during the year to maintain high standards of performance. The best brains of the Navy are giving their finest efforts to maintain this supremacy and are enthusiastic over their approach to this problem. (See also AVIATION.)

Naval Officer's Training.

The most exacting professional attainment of the Navy is to master the science of Naval Operation of the components of the fleet and of the fleet as a whole; and naval strategy and tactics require that the naval high command be trained to use the expensive weapons provided to the very best advantage. The naval officer's fundamental training is given at the Naval Academy, after which he goes to sea and develops the practical side of the war at sea. The career of a naval officer is a successive rise to positions of responsibility based on experience and ability. Duties afloat and ashore contribute to this training and the development of naval character. All officers, prior to taking high command, are given a course at the Naval War College where the theory of Naval Warfare is presented. Opportunity is given for comprehensive study and selective reading to acquaint them with the experiences of the past and problems of the future.

When the naval officer has had from 30 to 35 years of experience in the lower grades, he arrives at flag rank, provided he is selected for aptitude, and should then be qualified for the responsibility of high command afloat.

Administration and Handling of the Fleet.

The administration and tactical handling of the U. S. Fleet are a tremendous responsibility. The training of the whole to be ready to fight an intelligent action is a science in itself. The great fleet problems that are held in different sea areas are for the purpose of giving the necessary experience to the fleet personnel in handling any situation that the Navy might be called upon to face in giving necessary protection to this country in any emergency.

In 1938, the fleet problem was held in the Hawaiian area and tested out the defenses of the Islands and our own West Coast from any aggression in the Eastern Pacific. Such problems are the best means to test the effectiveness of the fleet when operating as a whole; in fact, it is a full-dress peacetime rehearsal of a war in that area of operations.

The remainder of the year is spent in perfecting the gunnery and offensive and defensive tactics of the various categories of the fleet and in training the personnel to effectively man the weapons they serve. Along with this goes the important feature of keeping the material of the fleet in first-class condition and ready for any service for which it may be called.

The training for the effective handling of the whole is one of the most important peacetime problems of the Navy, and upon this is concentrated the Navy's best efforts.

Naval Scientific Laboratories.

The Navy collects scientific data that may be of use from all available foreign and domestic sources and in addition, maintains scientific laboratories at the following points: The Naval Engineering Experiment Station, Annapolis, Md., the Naval Boiler Laboratory, Philadelphia, Pa., the Naval Research Laboratory, Bellevue, D. C., the Material Laboratory, New York, N. Y., and the laboratories maintained at the various navy yards have continued work in their various fields.

International Agreements.

The signatories of the London Treaty of 1936 have continued to give each other information regarding the particulars of new ships of the principal combatant categories, thereby preserving the principle of cooperative effort toward international naval agreements. On June 30, 1938, a Protocol was signed by the United States, Great Britain, and France providing for a limitation of displacement tonnage for battleships of 45,000 tons instead of the London Treaty (1936) limitation of 35,000 tons. Recommendations will be made during the coming year as to the tonnage of our future battleships which will best meet the needs of national security.

United States Naval Policy.

Operations of our naval forces during the past year have been conducted in accordance with the United States naval policy to maintain the Navy in sufficient strength to support the national policies and commerce and to guard the continental and overseas possessions of the United States. The forces have been disposed to operate with a minimum expenditure of funds.

The Secretary of the Navy, in his annual report, outlines the following policy for employment of the Navy:

'In adhering to the naval policy the employment of forces has been effected with the following in view:

(a) To exercise and train the units of the fleet to the highest state of efficiency;

(b) To organize the Navy for operations in either or both oceans so that expansion only will be necessary in case of national emergency;

(c) To protect American lives in disturbed areas;

(d) To assist in evacuating American Nationals from areas of especial danger;

(e) To maintain uninterrupted communications with and for American Nationals and for our diplomatic and consular establishments in the areas involved;

(f) To cooperate fully with other departments of the Government and with the states; and

(g) To cultivate friendly international relations.'

Specific Items of Progress, 1938.

The following are a few of the many special items in connection with improvements made during the year in design, materials, or equipment which are considered worthy of note:

Research work to improve propeller design in order to delay the appearance and development of cavitation.

Extensive research, with the progressive improvement of die lock chain as the objective.

Research in the stresses to which ground tackle is in service.

Investigation of new materials for heat insulation.

A research project to investigate the adaptability of the use of synthetic resins in the manufacture of protective coatings for naval vessels.

Investigation of flame-cutting of high tensile and nickel steels and flame gouging of medium steel castings to determine the most expeditious method of fabrication and removal of defects.

Extensive use is being made of gamma-ray and X-ray examinations for nondestructive testing of important castings, forging and weldments.

Further progress has been made in the development of better types of electric cables and in the improvement of the present types.

Additional types of satisfactory audible signals have been developed.

A comprehensive report on steel casting design as affecting the integrity of steel castings has been prepared. It is anticipated that this work will be of particular value to the Navy and of general value to the steel casting industry of the country.

The dieselization of power-boat machinery has progressed materially. During the year gasoline engines have been replaced by diesel engines in the power boats of six battleships, five heavy cruisers, one aircraft carrier, and three auxiliary ships, in addition to installation for all ships going into commission.

Continued experimentation with the use of high temperature high pressure steam for the operation of Naval vessels.

Work of the Naval Observatory.

The Naval Observatory on June 30, 1938 completed its ninety-fourth year of successful continuous operation. A number of commendatory resolutions and appreciative letters have been received from various scientific, educational, and governmental organizations on the accuracy, thoroughness, and expedition of the Observatory, as well as acknowledging the great benefit derived from the Navy's automatic time service. The fifth continuous year of the automatic time service is notable because of the Navy Department's change in policy, permitting hourly broadcasts instead of only twenty broadcasts per day. In addition to its purely astronomical work and its time service, the Observatory administers the design, procurement, and upkeep of navigational equipment in the Navy.

In accordance with international agreement under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union, each of the major countries is allocated certain parts of the required astronomical data for its observation, reduction, tabulation, and publication. This institution, besides other established tasks, was allocated the preparation of the Zodiacal Catalogue. The volume is ready for printing and photostat copies have been made for the major countries in advance of publication.

As one of the greatest modern advances toward astronomical accuracy, a new International Ephemeris, consisting of about 1,500 faint stars, has been prepared by the combined efforts of Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States.

Work of the Hydrographic Office.

The Hydrographic Office continued to carry out its mission of collecting, digesting, and issuing timely information necessary to afford the maximum possible navigational safety and facilities to the Navy, the Merchant Marine, and aircraft operating over the sea. The Office has continued to cooperate with the United States Coast Guard in the administration of the International Ice-observation and Patrol Service.

As a source of manufacture and supply of charts, nautical publications and hydrographic information for the fleet, the Merchant Marine, and the aviation services, and as a means of effecting strategic surveys, the Hydrographic Office is a vital military adjunct to the fleet and is an essential part of the national defense.

Supply Department.

The fact is, the United States Navy is a huge organization where every department makes definite use of scientific investigations in its routine work. It is an interesting fact that the Supply Department, which purchases supplies and food for the Navy, subjects to scientific tests materials such as cloth, foods, and medicines to insure purity and see that they meet the specifications. Even the coffee used is roasted and blended according to the most approved methods prior to issue to the fleet and shore stations. Fuels and lubricating oils come in for definite scientific investigation before acceptance.

The Work Ahead.

The great bulk of naval construction this year is going on at the Government navy yards, which are admirably equipped for construction purposes and have experienced civil labor forces to carry on the work. With the contemplated enlargement of the fleet, the naval design sections will be taxed to capacity in getting out the plans for the new battleships that have been contracted for during the year. These ships are expected to embody the last word in modern naval design, heavily armed and armored and of high speed, all planned to meet the requirements of the United States Fleet. The country has every right to expect that the U. S. Navy will be fully prepared to carry out successfully what it is called upon to do; namely, to provide security as the first line of defense of the nation.