1938: Military Science

The greatest developments in military science, 1938, have been in Air and Anti-air Service, Tank and Anti-tank Service, Reorganization and Changes in Armament, Mechanization and Motorization.

Air Forces.

It was presumably England's fear of the bombing of Paris and London by the 10,000 planes Hitler was supposed to control, that brought about the 'Peace of Munich.' Since that time all the greater nations of Europe have been building and buying planes as speedily as possible.

On the outbreak of hostilities, the military objective of the enemy will be the public opinion of the citizens; and his immediately effective weapon for overcoming their moral resistance will be the air force.

The theory that mass bombing of centers of population will cause a people to capitulate has been proved wrong in the wars in China and Spain — they make more bomb-proofs and proceed with 'business as usual.' True, the mass of air bombers Berlin might have used on Paris or London has nothing comparable in China and Spain. Yet the statement holds; for the people of Madrid, after nearly two years of bombing, are still resisting.

Earlier planes sent to Spain by Germany and Italy were obsolescent, and the Russian planes (built to American specifications, now obsolescent) proved superior. But in 1938 Franco had over 600 planes, mostly two-engined Italian and German bombers, and had air superiority in both quantity and quality. The Government air force had over 400; the majority of the planes, Russian. Some of the ablest soldiers of four European nations were advisers in Spain.

The failure of bombers to cut railroads and roads was a surprise. So, too, was the success of their action in support of Infantry.

In the last year tremendous advance has been made in the quality, quantity, and use of airplanes for war. On its war strength, especially in the air, the rank if not the life of a nation seems to depend; and many of the best scientists of the greater nations are at work trying to find improvements in war implements. Air power depends not on the airplanes alone, but on their equipment — engines, guns, radio, cameras, navigational and flight instruments; also on the personnel — the pilots, mechanics, combat crews, the executive, technical, and administrative specialists; and too on convenient and efficient air bases with their hangars, shops, flying fields, technical buildings, and maintenance organizations. Air power has not yet been tested in a war between two modern industrial nations.

Germany and the United States have the best types of planes — Germany having the most of latest pattern, as she began large production only about three years ago; Italy and England form a close second; Russia probably is not far behind; France was lagging, but now moving forward more rapidly.

The German air effort has been the greatest in history. In March 1935, there were only 27 military squadrons; early in 1936, there were 115; at the beginning of 1938, about 250. According to recent reports there may be nearly 10,000 fighting aircraft in the German Air Force. One factory alone is said to employ 70,000 persons. All the aircraft factories in the United States employ only about 18,000. A reliable source reports Germany as turning out over 5,000 planes a year, of which 50 per cent are heavy bombers.

France is reported to have 3,600 serviceable military aircraft, with 2,000 on order. Recent events have caused her to speed up production. Her trend toward an increase in single-seater fighter aircraft indicates that many of her air leaders still believe aircraft the best anti-aircraft defense.

Not much is known on the size, equipment, and training of the Russian Air Force. Russia is experimenting and has erected large plants. Several world records have been made by Russian planes and flyers with homemade equipment. She uses planes in close cooperation with her ground arms, including extensive transportation of ground forces by air. About 60 per cent of her planes are bombers. Russia believes in using single-seater fighters operating in large units as chief defense against invading aircraft. In Spain her fighting units have demonstrated the excellence of her equipment and the high state of training of her air personnel.

Ten years ago the United States was paying greater attention to research than any other nation. At the time the plans for the United States' so-called 'Flying Fortress' were made, this plane was almost alone in the four-engine, high capacity, long range bombardment field; now there is hardly a leading nation without some similar plane.

The 'Flying Fortress' is an all-metal monoplane four-engined bomber with a large crew and many machine guns so placed as to avoid any 'blind spot' where an enemy's plane would not be under fire. Six of these planes flew to Buenos Aires and return, 11,000 miles, in 58 hours, covering 2,500 miles in a little over 10 hours non-stop. Such bombers are designed to strike an enemy at such a distance that he will be unable to bring his forces close enough to inflict serious damage without being in danger of decisive losses. The range is such that air bases can be made far inland, out of serious danger. Bomb loads, up to 2,500 pounds at economical speed, can be carried 2,500 miles. Such planes demonstrated their ability to resist the attacks of small pursuit planes and to carry effective bomb loads. This fact led in turn to the development of the 'Airacuda.' The 'Airacuda,' powered with two Allison, 1,000-horsepower engines that drive pusher propellers, has a top speed in excess of 350 miles an hour and carries four machine guns and two rapid-fire cannon firing one-pound shells as its armament. It is operated by a crew of five and is fitted for substratosphere fighting. Its coming is believed by many competent observers to herald the doom of the now outclassed pursuit plane.

The bombing from these huge planes is of unprecedented accuracy. New type bomb sights have been developed; these have mechanical calculators for measuring speed, altitude, wind drift, and other factors. Recent advances in photography make it possible to take colored pictures from the air, to spot troops and machines invisible to the eye. This can be done in spite of natural cover and ordinary camouflage, including that of planes — some planes being now camouflaged on top against view from above, and on bottom against view from below. Telescopic camera lenses and oblique lenses render mapping of unknown terrain rapid and accurate, replacing maps when necessary.

Crews of the large bombers have to be well trained and are generally kept on the same plane for long periods. In May 1938 three 4-engined bombers, in maneuvers, in spite of rain, hail, and low visibility, intercepted the Italian liner Rex 700 miles from their starting point, demonstrating their excellent navigability. Bombers have now attained such high speed that only the most modern pursuit planes can be of much use in defense against them. The English pursuit plane Spitfire — a number of these are now in use and 1,000 projected — has a speed of over 350 miles per hour. Any speed of less than 300 miles per hour is of little use against reasonably modern bombers, for to be efficient, pursuit planes should have about 30 per cent more speed than the enemy bomber. Observation and attack planes have been correspondingly increased in speed and efficiency.

The attack plane, really a light bomber, is a low-wing monoplane, carries machine guns for all-around fire, and a number of small bombs — very effective in attacking ground troops. The auto-giro is being investigated by most of the principal powers. The United States purchased some very recently. Germany used them when she went into Austria. They are probably too vulnerable for work over the enemy's lines; but for carrying commanders or orders behind the lines, coordinating long columns on the march, observing artillery fire and selecting targets, their use has great promise. They can take off and land on almost any field — as demonstrated by the United States postal service which is experimenting with one to transport air mail from airfield to the Post Office roof.

In recent maneuvers in the United States, a civilian warning net of some 2,000 observers with telephone or radio, extending 100 to 200 miles toward the enemy, proved most efficacious in giving timely warning of the approach of enemy aircraft. Pursuit planes were then able to take the air early enough to be efficacious in interception and destruction of many attacking bombers.

Anti-Aircraft Defense.

Anti-aircraft defense has improved with aircraft efficiency. Four mechanical aids that have given amazing precision to the gun fire of the anti-airplane guns are the altitude finder, the director, the comparator, and the sound indicator. A four-gun battery of three-inch pieces directed by these devices and backed by smaller guns for use against low-flying planes could bring down any bomber flying an even course up to 200 miles per hour up to 12,000 feet altitude. The altitude finder records the height at which the plane is flying. It is connected with the director, which estimates the position of the target at the time projectile and target should meet. The comparator and the sound indicator pick up position of target at night — this data is used to train searchlights on the target so firing can begin.

A greatly improved recoil mechanism is being put into the three-inch anti-aircraft gun, and the weight of the gun with carriage reduced about two tons. Lessons in Spain and China show an explosive projectile is essential to insure the destruction of a modern metal plane with one hit. A 37 mm. gun firing explosive projectiles at the rate of 120 per minute has been developed for use against low-flying planes. A greatly improved 105 mm. gun is being used most effectively against high-flying bombers. The ears (small horns) of the anti-aircraft detector have been decreased to about one-tenth of their former weight. An 800,000 candlepower searchlight at the Ft. Bragg maneuvers illuminated an airplane flying at 24,000 feet altitude, but searchlights did not prove very effective in these maneuvers.

Small radio-controlled airplanes, simulating closely the maneuvers of a regular airplane, have been flown at 12,000 feet altitude and proved highly maneuverable for anti-airplane targets. Concerning lessons from the Ft. Bragg maneuvers, General Gardner, commanding said: 'Present types of anti-aircraft guns and searchlights, if installed in a complete all-round defense, will maintain all types of enemy aircraft at altitudes which will render exceedingly difficult accurate bombing of a defended objective of limited area.'

Fixed anti-airplane guns are effective where constantly needed, but their position can be determined by enemy reconnaissance; mobile anti-aircraft and equipment, which can be swiftly moved to threatened areas, is more effective and economical.

In Spain the anti-aircraft weapons supplied and manned by the Germans were very effective; the caliber 88 mm., with a vertical range of 36,000 feet, firing 15 shots per minute for high-flying planes; the 37 mm. (also used for anti-tank) best used below 6,000 feet. The range and height-finding instruments are excellent; the personnel well trained. Judging from the heavy toll of airplanes taken by the Nationalist anti-aircraft batteries, there is greater danger to sky raiders from anti-aircraft guns than from pursuit planes. These results achieved by ground defense justify the establishment of anti-aircraft artillery units at vital air objectives.

Near Honolulu army anti-aircraft batteries have obtained remarkable results on sleeve targets towed at 17,000 feet altitude. Some batteries scored 6 hits in 20 shots. An anti-aircraft gun can fire 14 to 20 rounds as the target crosses its field of fire.

Tanks and Anti-Tank Defense.

The first tanks sent to Spain were small, obsolescent, too thinly armored. At first they had some success: that is until both sides obtained suitable anti-tank guns, which punctured the armor and put the tanks out of action. The tank, however, is still an arm of opportunity, capable of great things if its speed enables it to avoid anti-tank guns, if its armor is sufficient to be puncture-proof, or if it is accompanied into action by a weapon capable of protecting it against anti-tank guns. Tanks now are appearing mounting anti-anti-tank guns, to accompany other tanks and destroy anti-tank guns of the enemy.

The early non-success of the tanks was due often to incompetent handling: the staff was ignorant of their proper employment, and they were frequently brought into action in small numbers without artillery or infantry support. Rough handling by inexperienced crews produced needless breakdowns. The Russian medium tanks were superior to the early German and Italian light tanks with too short track base.

The Germans have developed a tank with exceptionally heavy armor plate to combat the new high-powered anti-tank gun. These tanks are used to exploit a success: once a breach has been made, the tank is used to widen and secure the breach.

The tank is essential to a modern army, but must be used in mass for greatest effect. More armor, rather than extremely high speed, seems indicated; to meet the tank menace, better and more anti-tank guns are necessary. The size of tanks and the thickness of armor varies in different armies according to where they are to be used. The German, Italian, and French armies need thick armor to resist the known anti-tank guns of their most probable enemies. Russia, England, and the United States in some of their tanks sacrifice the heavier armor to speed for reconnaissance, turning movements, etc.

Guns can be made stronger than armor. As tank armor increases, slowing up the tank, thus making a better target, the anti-tank gun caliber increases sufficiently to penetrate. The Germans and the United States have both developed a powerful 37 mm, anti-tank gun of extremely high muzzle velocity and rapidity of fire. This gun is extremely mobile and can be rapidly concentrated when a tank attack is indicated. It was most successful in Spain. But already larger tanks with heavier armor are forcing the production of a 47 mm. anti-tank gun. In new organization of company, battalion, and regiment, anti-tank fire is provided; 50 caliber anti-tank rifles in the company; in the battalion heavy machine guns; in the regiment anti-tank guns and mortars. Often there is a reserve of anti-tank artillery in the division.

Besides anti-tank guns, tank traps deep, wide, and camouflaged are used. In the Reich 'Lines' — the new German western line of fortifications — huge tank traps stretch in long rows. These traps apparently consist of four uneven rows of closely spaced humps of concrete and steel, 4 to 6 feet high, connected by concrete foundations. These humps are reinforced by steep inclines and deep camouflaged ditches. Mines also are used against tanks.

Reorganization and Changes in Armament.

The Infantry is being materially reorganized in practically all armies. The trend is to light machine guns in the platoon. In the United States the bolt-action rifle is being replaced by a semi-automatic rifle giving nearly three times the fire power per man. The 8-man light-machine-gun squad has three light machine guns and five semi-automatics. The Company Headquarters has a light mortar. In the German regiment there is a company of heavy machine guns assigned to the rifle battalion; anti-tank guns and minenwerfers are in regimental companies. In M. A. experimental regiment a fourth battalion contains heavy machine guns and anti-tank guns.

Cavalry is almost displaced by mechanized cavalry; the machine, tank, motor car or motorcycle replacing the horse; the mechanized Cavalry having the same duties to perform as were formerly performed by the horse Cavalry.

The Artillery in the various armies has adopted calibers according to probable use. The Germans have sacrificed mobility to secure increased power. Where great need for destructive effect can be foreseen, as in most European countries, a high proportion of light howitzers is embodied in the division. The modern gun has greater range, better ammunition, greater flexibility, and greatly improved fire direction and communication; method and equipment giving it greatly increased effectiveness. The Germans are manufacturing a 105 mm. gun-howitzer, replacing the old 77 mm. gun. These heavier calibers are necessary to attack construction of heavy masonry and concrete fortifications, such as are frequently to be encountered in Europe. Their longer range compels early deployment and permits wider choice of artillery positions. The more rapid fire and the power required to penetrate a defensive line necessitate more and more ammunition on hand and in immediate reserve. In December 1938, the Germans tried out their heaviest guns against the former Czech fortifications, similar to those of the French 'Maginot Line,' to test their efficiency against heavy concrete fortifications.

Mechanization and Motorization.

All the more powerful nations — Germany, France, England, United States, Italy, Russia, and Japan, are mechanizing a number of divisions. That means putting all elements on motor cars, a large portion of which are armored; and having such quantities of machine guns, tanks, anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns, scout cars, etc., as to give each division great mobility and several times the concentrated fire power an equal number of troops formerly possessed. Germany had three such divisions on her march into Austria. She is now organizing a fourth. The number of tanks per brigade is reduced from 700 to 425. These panzer (armored) divisions are made up of one tank brigade of two regiments and a Shutzer brigade composed of a motorized Infantry Regiment, a motorized Artillery Regiment, a motorized reconnaissance battalion of wheeled vehicles, and a signal, engineer, and anti-tank battalion, totaling about 11,000 officers and men and 3,000 motor vehicles. Mechanized divisions in other armies differ somewhat, but are along the same lines. Some have about 15 airplanes for reconnaissance and battle use. Such divisions are kept at war strength in men and material, to form a quick striking force or to operate independently in a campaign involving wide movement. Germany is reported to have about 2,100 tanks.

The Mechanized Cavalry Brigade of the U. S. Army in maneuvers covered about 700 miles, about 150 miles per day; of the nearly 600 vehicles, all but two came through without a disabling breakdown. The diesel engine is being developed for use in combat cars; it can go twice as far as a gasoline engine on the same amount of fuel; also, the danger of fire or explosion is eliminated.

The best coordinated attack in Spain, where aviation, tanks, Infantry, and Artillery were used, after the position had been reconnoitered, proceeded about as follows: — The two attacking divisions had 288 guns in support on a five-kilometer front; the Artillery preparation lasted 75 minutes; 120 tanks then followed the barrage (one fifth of these tanks had anti-anti-tank guns); these tanks concentrated against enemy machine-gun nests not put out by the Artillery. The Infantry assisted the tanks in 'mopping up' and organized a defensive position. The Artillery was then released for a second similar mission. Aviation has often been used in the preliminary bombardment, then in mopping up machine-gun nests and strafing the enemy's Infantry with fragmentation bomb and machine-gun fire — also in the pursuit.

In spite of war machines and mechanization, leadership and good staff work are shown as most important. The Infantry is again shown as the arm that takes and holds a position. While very necessary, Artillery, tanks, and aviation are auxiliaries.

To meet the demands of modern weapons and improvements, a very high standard of individual and unit training will be required. The next war will call for higher morale and initiative than the last. Officers and non-commissioned officers will require more self-reliance and general knowledge than ever before.

To quote a great air general: —

'It has been demonstrated on the battlefields of three continents in very recent times that battles are won and successful wars fought by teams composed of all the combat arms, ably supported by the supply and technical services. Without any one of these essential team members no fighting force can cope successfully with modern military conditions.

'Transportation, manufacture — all industry must be organized and mobilized to achieve a modern victory.'

Plans for war procurement and industrial mobilization are being pushed, especially in Germany and the United States. Mass production of munitions, airplanes, tanks, etc., is of vital importance. The United States has surveyed 20,000 factories and has arrangements with over 10,000 factories for immediate and immense production of needed items in proper priority in case of threatened war.