1942: Netherlands

In 1940 the death rate in the Netherlands had increased by 9½ per cent as compared with 1938, excluding all deaths by enemy action, which were very heavy. A continuation of German occupation has not improved the situation. Queen Wilhelmina, speaking before a joint session of the Congress of the United States in August 1942 declared, 'News which has reached me from Holland reveals that there has been a great increase in tuberculosis and illness; and mortality rates, which before the war were very low, are now very high.'

Food Scarcity.

Food, which was so plentiful in the Netherlands before the German invasion, became so scarce in 1942 that the German High Court at The Hague imposed the death sentence on Netherlanders for being involved in the theft of ration cards. Other Netherlanders were executed for various food rationing offenses. Among the many things which the German occupation authorities had forbidden the Dutch population to do was the photographing of German or Netherland Nazi officials while eating, because the ration-ridden people are aroused by such pictures. The Dutch in 1942 were beginning to feel the effect of German policy announced by General Goering that the Germans would be the last people in Europe who would go hungry.

Agricultural Situation.

Dutch stockbreeding and dairy farming which has always been dependent to a large extent on the importation of oil seed and fodder from overseas has been sharply reduced. Large herds of livestock which could not be fed because of the blockade have been slaughtered or sent to Germany. The famous Barnevelder chickens have become practically extinct in their native home. There has been a general agricultural reorganization in the country. Staple food crops have been substituted for luxury cultivation. Many of the tulip and hyacinth fields for which the Netherlands was noted have been transformed into legume, potato, and sugar beet tracts.

Netherlands East Company.

To meet the dangerous food situation in the Netherlands and to undermine Dutch resistance the Germans proposed a scheme which would deplete the Netherlands of a large part of its inhabitants. The Germans established an organization called the Netherlands East Company with the purpose of settling a colony of 3,000,000 Netherlanders (approximately one-third of the total population of the country) in conquered Russia. After the conquest of the Netherlands East Indies by the Japanese, the Germans seized the resources of the three major Dutch companies identified with the East Indies, and forced them to cooperate with the German-sponsored Netherlands East Company. One of the leading figures of the new company is the Dutch Nazi, Rost van Tonningen, President of the Netherlands Bank. The Netherlands State is compelled to provide subsidies for the colonization and the Netherlands Bank is to participate in financing the Dutch settlement in Russia. There does not seem to be any indication, however, that the scheme will be successful nor that many Netherlanders, no matter how much they may be suffering in their homeland, are interested in participating in the commercial and agrarian exploitation of Eastern Europe under German control. So far, only a few hundred Dutch Nazis have left the Netherlands to found a new settlement in the Baltic area.

German Educational System.

The Germans intensified their efforts in 1942 to Nazify and Germanize the Dutch, particularly the youth of the country. Determined to educate the Netherlanders to collaborate with the 'New Order,' the Nazis opened over fifty German kindergartens and schools. The new educational policy was explained by the Dutch Nazi Secretary-General of the Education Ministry, who controls all schools, universities, physical culture and youth welfare in the Netherlands, when he declared: 'Too much emphasis has been laid on spiritual education; in the future Dutch, German, and gymnastics will be the main features.'

Special efforts have been made to diminish the influence of Roman Catholic schools whose enrollments have increased since the German occupation. Salaries of all teachers who are members of religious orders have been cut almost in half. All headmasters who are priests have been forced to resign.

Dutch youth is being regimented in much the same way as German youth under the Nazis. Anton A. Mussert, leader of the Netherland Nazis, has organized the Jeugdstorm, a youth section of his storm troopers. The Boy Scouts have been disbanded. Prewar youth hostels have become centers of Nazi education. A branch of the Hitler Jugend has been opened at The Hague. Compulsory labor service for six months for all boys between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four has been made a law of the land. The labor camps are training schools for the universities.

In July the Reich Commissar announced that Reich schools would be opened, similar to Nazi educational institutions in Germany, to give National Socialist political training to the Dutch youth. Only those who graduate from these Reich schools are allowed to attend universities.

These Nazi educational measures caused deep resentment among the Dutch. Hundreds of Dutch teachers were imprisoned or dismissed from their positions because they refused to conform with the new educational system. Numerous institutions, including the famous University of Delft, were closed. A joint protest was made by the Catholic and Protestant clergy in the Netherlands against the establishment of a National Socialist Labor Service and the National Socialist educational platform. A pastoral letter of the Catholic Archbishop and Bishops of the Netherlands and a joint declaration of the general synod of the Dutch Reformed Church on the subject was read from pulpits throughout the country. The violation under Nazi rule of the three basic principles of Dutch national life: justice, charity, and freedom of conscience and conviction which are anchored in the Christian faith, was condemned. The communication stated further that Dutch Christians had been deprived of the organs of Christian education; the Joint Council of Schools adhering to the Bible, and the Society for Christian Education. The Dutch clergy also protested the Nazi interference with the work carried on by the institutions of the Christian Society for the nursing and care of those suffering from epilepsy. Declaring that a Labor Service with National Socialist aims was a great danger to Dutch youth, the Catholic and Protestant clergy asked Netherlanders to take any possible steps to keep themselves out of the labor camps.

Deportation of Jews.

Deportation of all Jews from the Netherlands to Eastern Europe was speeded up by the Nazis in 1942. It is the German intention to clear the Netherlands of all Jews by expelling 180,000 persons by June 1, 1943. The Netherlands Government in Exile announced in the spring of 1942 that 740 of the 1,200 Dutch Jews sent by the Germans to enforced labor in the salt and sulphur mines at Mauthausen had died because the Germans had given them no protection against the poisonous vapors. But the Germans issued a decree in August that Dutch Jews must immediately obey the summons to accept work in Germany or be sent to the Mauthausen concentration camp. The Dean of the University of Leyden was arrested by the Gestapo when, in an address to professors and students, he condemned the dismissal of Jewish professors. The Catholic and Protestant clergy in a joint declaration read in all churches in the Netherlands courageously condemned the merciless treatment of the Jewish section of the population.

Requisitioned Materials.

Food was not the only scarce article in the Netherlands in 1942. The Reich Commissar issued orders imposing the death penalty for stealing or damaging furs and woolen clothing collected for the German troops in Russia. German authorities seized all silver, brass and nickel coins in the Netherlands and ordered the surrender of all nonferrous metals from private homes. The German army in the Netherlands requisitioned all men's bicycles. Even pet dogs have been conscripted by the German occupation authorities who ordered all Netherlanders who had dogs more than eighteen inches high to turn them over to German military officials.

Personnel of the Netherlands Government in Exile.

Several changes were made in the composition of the Netherlands Government in Exile in 1942. Early in the year Pieter A. Kerstens arrived in London from Batavia to assume his duties as Minister of Commerce, Industry and Shipping. Dr. Michiels van Verduynen, the Netherlands Minister to Great Britain, was appointed by Queen Wilhelmina to serve as Minister without Portfolio in the Cabinet. Queen Wilhelmina raised Vice Admiral J. I. Furstner, Minister of the Navy, to a Lieutenant Admiral, a rank that has not been used since the seventeenth century period of Dutch naval power. Prince Bernhard, consort of Crown Princess Juliana and an Air Commodore in the Royal Air Force, was appointed a Rear Admiral in the Netherlands Navy and a Major General in the Netherlands Army. Premier Pieter S. Gerbrandy was appointed to the additional post of Minister of Colonies by Queen Wilhelmina. He resigned as Minister of Justice, Dr. Van Angeren being appointed in his place. After the loss of the Netherlands East Indies Dr. Van Mook was appointed Colonial Minister. Jonkheer Van Lidth de Jeude was appointed Minister of War and Jonkheer Van den Brock, Minister of Finance. Possibly the most significant appointment was that of the Javanese Regent, Raden Soejona, scion of an aristocratic Javanese family, who was appointed Minister without Portfolio. This was the first time that a native Indonesian had ever been appointed to a Dutch Cabinet.

Dutch Resistance to German Reprisals.

Dutch resistance to the conquerors of their occupied country became more pronounced in 1942. Early in the year 500 citizens were arrested in the town of Amerspoort in reprisal for bomb attacks on the Nazis. In May over 70 Netherlanders, including some officers, were shot for anti-German activities. Widespread sabotage and anti-German demonstrations took place on the second anniversary of the German invasion of the Netherlands. Twenty-five hundred former officers and cadets of the Dutch army and over 400 prominent Dutch citizens were seized as hostages by the German military authorities. Many prominent Netherlanders were imprisoned or executed. Fearful of an Allied invasion combined with a Dutch uprising, the Germans moved their military headquarters from the coast to Arnheim on the German border. The headquarters of the Dutch Nazi party was transferred from The Hague to Hilversum.

Diplomatic Relations.

In 1942 the Netherlands Government established a legation in Australia. The governments of Great Britain and the United States raised the status of their diplomatic missions to the Netherlands Government in Exile to that of embassies and the corresponding Dutch Ministers were raised in rank to Ambassadors. Diplomatic relations between the Netherlands and Russia, severed at the time of the Bolshevik revolution, were established in an agreement signed in London.

As the year drew to a close it was announced that the Germans intended, with the aid of some Dutch Quisling, to raise an army of 250,000 Netherlanders to fight in Russia. The record of Dutch resistance does not indicate that any such attempt will meet with any response among the Dutch people.

1941: Netherlands

Nazi Policies of Exploitation.

Nazi exploitation of the Netherlands and of the Netherlanders for the purpose of winning the war was continued and intensified in 1941. Since the German occupation of the Netherlands the State debt has increased by nearly $100,000,000 per month. Expenditures for 1941 are estimated at $1,875,000,000; of this amount $875,000,000 was absorbed by maintaining the German army of occupation and paying other expenses of occupation. It was believed that there were 1,500,000 German troops quartered in the Netherlands at the beginning of the year.

In addition to these extraordinary expenses imposed upon the peace-loving Netherlanders by the Nazi invaders the State Treasury is forced to finance the excess of exports to Germany over the imports from that country. The State Treasury of the Netherlands also must advance the cost of manufacturing German raw materials into finished products in Dutch factories as well as provide funds to pay men working in Dutch factories on goods for Germany. Dutch workers who can not find employment in the Netherlands are faced with the alternative of starvation or leaving their homes and going to Germany to work for their enemies. It is believed that over 100,000 Dutch workmen went to Germany in 1941. This is all part of the Nazi policy to force the peoples which they have conquered to help finance the war and to devote their efforts to the strengthening of the German war machine.

Dutch Resistance.

This policy on the part of the Nazis continued to meet with resistance by the Netherlanders. In the first few days of 1941 the German authorities closed the famous universities of Leyden and Delft because of student strikes and disturbances. Many students were arrested 'in the interest of public safety.' In February, martial law was enforced and a military administration established in North Holland province because of a series of strikes and riots which developed there. A strike had started among municipal workers and then spread to private concerns until it reached serious proportions. Meetings and demonstrations of all kinds were prohibited by the authorities of occupation and activity was forbidden to all political parties. Large collective fines to be paid within one week were imposed upon the cities of Amsterdam, Hilversum and Zaandam. The Mayors and Municipal Councils of these three cities were dismissed and replaced by commissioners directly responsible to the German authorities.

Despite these harsh measures reports of Dutch resistance to the German forces of occupation continued to reach the outside world. German official announcements told of Netherlanders being imprisoned for helping Jews to escape; of executions of Netherlanders who had assisted British airmen shot down over the country, of numerous incidents where Netherlanders had insulted or harmed German troops of occupation. In March a German court in the Hague sentenced eighteen men to death for espionage and sabotage. Later Dr. Colijin, the former Prime Minister of the Netherlands was arrested along with sixty members of his Anti-Revolutionary Party. Throughout the year many prominent politicians, professors, and other intellectuals were sent to concentration camps in Germany.

One of the strongest centers of resistance to the Nazi authorities has been in the Protestant and Catholic churches. When the Germans attacked their Russian allies without warning in 1941 a pastoral letter from Catholic bishops in the Netherlands was read in all Catholic churches warning the people not to be deceived by German propaganda concerning a 'crusade' against Bolshevism. This action infuriated the German authorities who started a violent campaign against Catholic and Protestant officials. The Dutch Nazi commissioner for trade unions took over all the confessional unions. The Reich Commissioner for the Netherlanders warned the Confessional Schools that their State subsidies would be withdrawn if they did not conform to German regulations.

Units of the Dutch navy which escaped at the time of the German invasion and joined the British navy have done their part in 1941 in weakening the Axis Powers. The Isaac Sweers, a Dutch cruiser of about 1,800 tons, was not completed when the Nazis invaded the Netherlands in 1940, but was towed to England before the Germans could seize her and was finished in a British naval yard. By the end of 1941 she took part with British cruisers in a successful naval engagement against Italian cruisers in the Mediterranean.

Nazi Administration.

Shortly after the German invasion both houses of Parliament were dismissed but the local and provincial representative bodies were still allowed to function. In August 1941, a decree suspended all parliamentary provincial and municipal bodies in order 'to strengthen the authoritarian administration of the country.' All trades in the Netherlands have been divided into six groups which correspond almost exactly with Reichsgruppen in Germany. The Germans have also created a Central Labor Office with thirty-seven branches in the country. This organization deals mainly with the transfer of Dutch labor to Germany. The Nuremberg laws for the Jews have been introduced into the country.

The German authorities admitted that Queen Wilhelmina and her government in London were making things difficult for them in the Netherlands when they ordered the seizure of all property in the occupied territory belonging to the Royal Family. Seyss-Inquart stated at the time that 'the former Queen Wilhelmina, by her persistence in adhering to the Bolshevist-Capitalist front, has excluded herself from the unity of the New Europe. She heaps insults on the head of the German Reich and on the German army and from afar exhorts the Netherlanders in the most irresponsible way to deeds of violence against the forces of occupation.'

At the end of 1941, the Netherlands Government in London was encouraging resistance on the part of the Netherlands to the German forces of occupation and directing warfare in the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Pacific against the Axis powers. At the same time the Government looked forward to peace and the re-establishment of the Netherlands, and the future political development of their state. See also NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES.

1940: Netherlands

Invasion by German Forces.

In 1940 for the first time since the Napoleonic era the Netherlands was invaded and conquered by a foreign army. At four o'clock on the morning of May 10 German parachute troops landed at Waalhaven, the airport of Rotterdam, and seized it. One hour later German flying boats alighted on the Maas River in the center of Rotterdam. German soldiers, who had been transported in these flying boats, occupied the bridges over the Maas and two railway stations. Almost simultaneously parachute troops landed at Delft, thirteen miles south-east of The Hague, and at Dordrecht; the Schipol aerodrome at Amsterdam was heavily bombed and German planes attacked all of the main aerodromes in the country.

At six o'clock on the same morning the German Minister in The Hague delivered to the Foreign Minister of the Netherlands an ultimatum announcing that 'an immense German force has been put into action. Any resistance is senseless. Germany guarantees that if no resistance is offered the Netherlands will retain her possessions in Europe and overseas. If resistance is offered there is the danger of the complete destruction of the country and of the machinery of the State.' As justification for his country's action the German Minister declared that his Government had undeniable proofs of an immediately imminent invasion by France and Great Britain of Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. This invasion, said the German Minister, was prepared with the knowledge of the Netherlands Government.

Dutch Resistance.

Despite the ultimatum and the overwhelming superiority of the German military machine the Dutch decided on resistance. The attitude of the people was expressed by Queen Wilhelmina on May 10 in her proclamation:

'After our country with scrupulous conscientiousness had observed strict neutrality during all these months, and while Holland had no other plan than to maintain this attitude, Germany last night made a sudden attack on our territory without warning. This was done notwithstanding the solemn promise that the neutrality of our country would be respected as long as we ourselves maintained that neutrality.

'I here launch a flaming protest against this unprecedented violation of good faith and violation of all that is decent between cultured States.'

The Netherlands was by no means unprepared. In early 1940 many defensive measures had been taken of a nature to delay an invading German army. All intricate system of waterways offered many obstacles. Bridges were mined and reinforced by defensive posts. The command of the armed forces was reorganized in February when General Winkelman became Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Measures were taken against fifth columnists. The discovery of a widespread espionage plot was announced in February; in March two important government officials were sentenced to prison and in April the Government cancelled all military leave and the entire country was placed under a state of siege. Some Dutch Nazi leaders were arrested and others escaped into Germany. A government decree suspended the liberty of the press as from April 27 and provided for the establishment of a military censorship.

The morale of the Government was good. An official announcement in January stated: 'Any attack on this territory will meet with the most obstinate armed resistance, no matter from what quarter the attack comes.'

Capitulation of Dutch Army.

Nevertheless after four days of fighting all but small detachments of the Dutch army were defeated. The Commander-in-Chief of the Army on May 14 issued a proclamation to all troops except those in the province of Zeeland that fighting was to cease, stating: 'By a vast superiority of the most modern arms the enemy has been able to break our resistance. We have nothing with which to reproach ourselves . . . Ultimately the Netherlands will rise again as a free nation. Long live our Queen.' The next day the capitulation of the army was signed by the German Commander-in-Chief and the Dutch Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. On the same day the Queen of the Netherlands in a broadcast in London said the spirit of her nation would remain unbroken, because the conscience of the people was clear. (See also EUROPEAN WAR.)

Affairs in Netherlands Indies.

Effects of the German invasion of the Netherlands were important not only in Europe but also in the Far East and in the Western Hemisphere. On May 10, the first day of the invasion, Allied troops landed at Curaçao and Aruba in the Netherlands West Indies 'to prevent possible German attempts at sabotage.' These islands have developed a great petroleum refining industry. The British and French troops entered the islands with the acquiescence of the Government of the United States in fulfillment of a request from the Dutch Government and no change in sovereignty was contemplated. Curaçao is less than seven hundred miles from the Panama Canal.

War in Europe caused the Japanese to show a greater interest in the Netherlands East Indies. In February the Japanese Government formally denounced the Japanese-Netherlands arbitration treaty. This action indicated that Japan wanted a free hand in case action in regard to the possessions of the Netherlands in Asia should become desirable. In April, a few days after the German attack on Norway, the Japanese Foreign Minister, Hachiro Arita, requested the Dutch Ambassador to transmit a statement on the Netherlands East Indies to The Hague. Intended apparently as a warning to the Western powers, it declared that: 'the Japanese Government cannot but be deeply concerned over any developments accompanying the aggravations of the war in Europe that may affect the status quo of the Netherlands Indies.'

Cordell Hull, United States Secretary of State, answered this warning by stating: 'Intervention in the domestic affairs of the Netherlands Indies or any alteration of their status quo by other than peaceful processes would be prejudicial to the cause of stability, peace, and security not only in the region of the Netherlands Indies but in the entire Pacific area.'

The Dutch reply indicated that in case the Netherlands became involved in the European war it would neither request nor accept aid from any power in protecting the East Indies. After the German invasion actually took place the Dutch authorities in the East Indies immediately took firm measures for the protection of the islands, interning German nationals and seizing German vessels. After the subjugation of the Netherlands by Germany, the authorities in the Dutch East Indies evidenced a firm intention to defend their islands. The Government took over all armament productions and voted a huge budget for 1941, half of which was to be devoted to defense purposes. (See also JAPAN.)

Government Established in London.

Queen Wilhelmina, who established her Court and Government in London, repeatedly declared the determination of the Government to fight on until they had vindicated the freedom of the Dutch people and that of all their territories. The struggle was being waged by Dutchmen who had escaped from the occupied territories and were then recruited at the side of the British, and also by the Dutch Navy, which had been able to join the British Navy almost unscathed.

Certain changes were made in the Dutch Government in exile in London in September. The resignation of the Prime Minister was announced and Professor Gerbrandy was appointed to the office. M. Welter, Minister for the Colonies, was appointed Minister of Finance, and M. van Boeyen, the Home Minister, was appointed ad interim to be head of the Department of General Affairs. Princess Juliana, with her children, established her residence in Canada. She visited the United States in December.

German Régime in Netherlands.

Meanwhile the Germans lost no time in establishing a new order in the Netherlands. Dr. Seyss-Inquart, former Austrian Minister of the Interior, on May 18 was appointed Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands with supreme authority over the civilian population. He is assisted by an advisory staff of German specialists including the former Austrian Minister of Finance, Dr. Hans Fischboeck. Direct responsibility for the execution of measures dictated by the German authorities is borne by a Dutch administrative committee composed of General Secretaries of the various Departments of State. All the Provincial Commissioners who had served under Queen Wilhelmina were dismissed. Dutch Nazis were appointed Mayors of several small towns. A 'National Committee for Economic Collaboration' was formed under the chairmanship of Dr. Fentener van Vlissinger, former chairman of the International Chamber of Commerce. Government bureaus were formed, similar to those in Germany, to control the distribution of raw materials and production.

German occupation of the Netherlands has caused great economic dislocation and privation. It is estimated that almost one-half of the former normal foreign trade of the country has been cut off by the British blockade. The Germans are attempting to re-direct Dutch exports particularly to the Baltic region, Belgium, and Switzerland.

Restrictions have been imposed on the sale of all commodities. The sale of gasoline and rubber has been prohibited. Bread has been rationed. Instructions have been given to reduce the poultry by over 60 per cent because of the scarcity of chicken feed. Ration cards for domestic pets have been issued owing to the scarcity of food for animals. The Germans have confiscated nearly all of the country's butter reserves; the slaughtering of pigs has been accelerated; large quantities of early potatoes have been shipped to Germany; and cattle have been transported to Germany due to a lack of fodder. There is a severe shortage of coal and various articles of clothing, particularly shoes.

Friction between Dutch Population and Germans.

There are indications of increasing friction between the Dutch population and the German occupying authorities. In July General Winkelmann, Commander-in-Chief of the Dutch Forces was arrested and sent to Germany, and his office was abolished. The Burgomaster of The Hague was dismissed from office. Several newspapers have been suspended for maintaining an unfriendly attitude towards the Germans. A proclamation issued by the German Commander-in-Chief, put into force special measures, including the death penalty, against any persons assaulting the German authorities. German criminal law is now enforced throughout the country. The Burgomaster of Amsterdam issued a proclamation in July warning the people to show 'a more correct attitude' towards the German troops. In August a decree of Dr. Seyss-Inquart stated that: 'in view of the approaching Royal birthdays (those of Queen Wilhelmina and Princess Irene) all demonstrations of loyalty to the House of Orange will be considered as directed against the occupying forces and will be punished accordingly.'

Many prominent politicians have been arrested as a reprisal for the internment of Germans in the Netherlands Indies. But the spirit of the Dutch people does not seem to be broken. After several months under the German yoke, Protestant groups all over the country united in a protest to Dr. Seyss-Inquart against a decree which excluded Jews from government service.

The year 1940 will undoubtedly be remembered as one of the darkest and most tragic in the history of the Netherlands.

1939: Netherlands

Increasing armaments, disturbed international political relations, fear of war, and finally the outbreak of war in Europe marked 1939 as one of the most difficult years in the recent history of the Netherlands.

Elections.

Elections in April to the eleven Provincial States or Councils, which in turn elect the members of the Upper House, resulted in gains for the Liberals and for the Christian-Historic party; losses for Premier Hendryk Colijn's Anti-Revolutionary party composed of orthodox Calvinists with a conservative outlook on political and economic affairs; and a complete defeat for the National Socialists, whose program calls for the abolition of political parties, a dictatorial leadership, anti-Semitism, a corporative state, and, in foreign affairs, economic cooperation with the colonies of the Netherlands and strong military measures for the defense of the Empire. The National Socialists led by an engineer, A. A. Mussert, son of a humble schoolmaster, received only 4 per cent of the total vote. (See also SOCIALISM.)

Cabinet Changes.

Jacob A. de Wilde, a prominent member of Premier Colijn's Anti-Revolutionary party, who had served as Minister of Finance since 1937, resigned on May 20 owing to a disagreement with Roman Catholic Ministers in regard to the budget. Mr. de Wilde, a stanch supporter of orthodox financing, insisted on balancing the 1940 budget by obtaining funds for national defense and social welfare through a policy of retrenchment, while the Roman Catholic Ministers advocated expensive social and economic measures including a state dole for the unemployed. Premier Colijn took over the portfolio of Finance Minister temporarily, but refused to assume the responsibility for the acceptance of a permanent deficit in the budget. The narrow basis on which Dr. Colijn's cabinet was formed in 1937 disintegrated into Catholic and Protestant blocs. The Cabinet's position was made more precarious when the Lower House, with the exception of the Catholic members, expressed its disapproval of the attitude of the Catholic Minister of Justice, C. M. T. J. Gosseling, who had been charged with having hindered legal procedure in an accusation of moral defense which involved two priests.

Unable to agree among themselves about the 1940 budget, Premier Colijn's Cabinet resigned on June 30. Queen Wilhelmina immediately asked Dr. Colijn to form another, but on July 8 she granted his request to be relieved of this task. The Queen then called upon Dr. Dionysius Koolen, a Roman Catholic; but when on July 13 he, too, asked to be relieved of the task, the Queen again sent for Dr. Colijn who on July 24 finally succeeded in forming his fifth Cabinet. Four of the members, including Dr. Colijn, had been in the former Government, and five had made their careers in the Netherlands East Indies. The Cabinet, described as a business Ministry, was welcomed warmly by the Liberal and Protestant press, but was opposed by Roman Catholics and Socialists who had 31 and 23 seats respectively in the Lower House out of 100 members.

In outlining the aims of the new Government in the Lower House, Premier Colijn said that these included a sound ordinary budget, moderation of capital expenditure, some decentralization in administration, and a restoration of financial autonomy to the municipalities. Three days after it was formed, the Government by 55 to 27 received a vote of no confidence in the Lower House. Liberal Democrats and Communists voted with the Catholics and Socialists against the Government. On July 28 this short-lived Cabinet resigned.

After protracted negotiations, Dirk Jan de Geer, leader of the Christian Historical party in the Lower House, formed a cabinet on Aug. 9; this included two members of his own party, two Roman Catholics, and two Socialists, the latter being represented in the Government for the first time in history. The Christian Historical party, had, in many respects, the same program as former Premier Colijn's Anti-Revolutionaries. Three of the Ministers had been in Dr. Colijn's fourth Ministry, and four had no party affiliation. Premier de Geer, who had been Prime Minister from 1926 to 1929, took over the portfolio of Finance.

Defense Measures.

Throughout the year, owing to the critical international situation, military measures of a precautionary nature were taken. Both the navy and air force were rapidly expanded. The first training period for the army, which until a year ago had been five and one-half months, was extended to a maximum of two years; for the navy and coast defense, to a maximum of 21 months. At the same time the supplementary training term was almost doubled from 48 days to a maximum of 85 days.

Hundreds of machine-gun nests were constructed along the frontier; long rows of trees along many miles of roads were wired for explosives; newly-built fortifications at every bridge-head were manned day and night; anti-tank obstructions were placed at strategical points; batteries and land mines were spread along the border; and preparations were made to open the dikes and flood large sections of the country in case of invasion. Money was appropriated to provide anti-aircraft defense for the islands of Curacao and Aruba in the Netherlands West Indies. The naval defenses of the Netherlands East Indies were strengthened at an estimated cost of 15,000,000 guilders annually. (In 1939 the guilder was a fraction more than 53 cents.)

Foreign Relations.

Queen Wilhelmina, on Aug. 26 received the German Minister who informed her that Germany would respect the inviolability and integrity of the Netherlands in all circumstances. In return, Germany expected the Netherlands to observe strict neutrality. Two days later mobilization of the army and navy was ordered. Lieutenant General I. H. Raynders was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy by royal decree. On Sept. 1, a 'state of war' was promulgated and the next day martial law was declared. The mobilization fund was doubled to 200,000,000 guilders.

Relations with Belgium in 1939 were exceptionally close and cordial. Identical dangers and hopes made Netherlanders and Belgians more distinctly conscious of the conformity of their vital interests. In May Queen Wilhelmina went to Belgium for a state visit to return King Leopold's state visit of November 1938.

On Aug. 23 the Netherlands Government associated itself with Belgium and five other neutral nations of the Oslo group in a peace appeal drafted by King Leopold. At the end of August Queen Wilhelmina and King Leopold made a joint offer of mediation to Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Poland. On Nov. 7 Queen Wilhelmina received King Leopold and the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs at her palace in The House for a discussion of the international situation. As a result of this conference, Queen Wilhelmina and King Leopold renewed their offer of good offices to the belligerents. The replies to this offer left little hope for any peaceful settlement of the European War. Conferences of the Foreign Ministers of the Netherlands and of Belgium were held later in November and also of the Ministers of Economic Affairs of the two countries. The latter conferred on plans for increasing commerce between the Netherlands and Belgium.

Internal Affairs.

Preparations against invasion, the British blockade, and German submarine and mine warfare dealt a severe blow to the economy of the Netherlands. Shortly before hostilities began in Europe. Mendelssohn & Co., an important banking house in Amsterdam, which had confined its activities almost exclusively to international financing, of which it had virtually a monopoly in Western Europe, went into bankruptcy. Budget estimates showed a real deficit of 55,500,000 guilders for 1940 and 116,000,000 for 1941. The municipal income-tax was increased by 15 per cent for 1939 and by 45 per cent for 1940. The only new expenditures were for defense and for professional training of the unemployed. Despite the mobilization of 500,000 men, unemployment increased. British measures for examining shipping for contraband and the British conditional contraband list, which included nearly all commodities, disrupted the normal trade of Netherlands. One of the greatest marine disasters of 1939 was suffered by the Netherlands when the Simon Bolivar, a passenger liner, struck a mine and sank in the North Sea, with over a hundred lives lost. Several other vessels flying the flag of the Netherlands were torpedoed or struck mines. The British decision to seize all exports of German ownership or origin caused the Netherlands Government to make a formal demarche to the British Foreign Office reserving all her rights under international law.

In November, the foreign press reported the Netherlands to be in danger of imminent invasion from Germany. The Netherlands had been warned on several occasions by the German press that submission to the British contraband control would be considered as a violation of neutrality. Premier de Geer reassured the nation in a speech in which he stated that the Government had complete faith in assurances received from both warring parties that the neutrality of the Netherlands would be respected. As 1939 drew to a close, all political groups, with the exception of the Communists whose numbers are insignificant, were solidly behind the Government. See also RELIGION: Jews.

1938: Netherlands

The menace of war in Europe and in the Far East forced the Government of the Netherlands to resort to military expenditures which were a severe strain on the Treasury. In January, the 1938 Budget showed a deficit of 13,000,000 guilders. It was impossible to restore the financial reserves of the Treasury which had been consumed during the years of the economic crisis because of the increased expenditure for defense. For financial reasons the Government was forced to reject various proposals put forward by several deputies for the extension of the number in receipt of old-age pensions, for an increase in the wages of all State servants, and for smaller classes in primary schools to combat the unemployment among teachers.

Defense Policies.

The Military Service Act was revised, the annual contingent of conscripts was increased from 19,500 men to 32,000, and for unmounted troops the first training period was extended from 5½ to 11 months. In explaining the necessity for increasing defense appropriations, the Government declared that the Netherlands could no longer rely on the League of Nations as a guarantee of collective security. Action was planned to check any possible Japanese drive toward the rich oil fields in the Netherlands East Indies. A radical change of defense policy in the Far East took place. Hitherto the Netherlands had relied upon naval craft to protect her colonies. Now more confidence is given to a strong air fleet of bombing planes. The navy has been strengthened by additional mine layers, torpedo craft and submarines, but it is hoped that the air fleet alone will be strong enough to destroy any likely invader. The Netherlands Government announced that, even without mobilization, the country must be able to resist any attempts by foreign aircraft to cross the territory of the Netherlands in Europe. The flight of foreign airmen over the Netherlands to commit acts of war would be regarded by the Government as a breach of neutrality and would be resisted by force. Since the Czechoslovakian crisis military preparations have been pushed forward more rapidly. Further precautions against air attacks have taken place in the larger cities. It was stated that at the time of the crisis there were only 5,000 gas masks in the Netherlands for a civil population of 8,000,000.

Birth of an Heir to the Throne.

Demonstrations of joy took place throughout the Netherlands on the news of the birth of a Royal Princess to Crown Princess Juliana at the Palace of Soestdyk, in Baarn, near Amsterdam on January 31. The baby Princess was named Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard. Salutes of fifty-one guns in various parts of the country announced the happy event. It was the first birth in the Palace since that of Princess Juliana herself in 1909, and before that there had been only two in nearly sixty years, that of Queen Wilhelmina in 1880 and in 1843 that of her half-brother, Alexander, Prince of Orange, who died in 1884.

Jubilee of Queen Wilhelmina.

Later in the year Netherlanders had another opportunity to show their loyalty to the House of Orange. Sept. 6 marked the beginning of the forty-first year of the reign of Wilhelmina Helene Pauline Marie of Orange-Nassau, Queen of the Netherlands, who has ruled longer than any other living monarch in Europe. A week earlier the Queen celebrated her fifty-eighth birthday. At that time she broadcast a speech to her subjects at home and in the colonies in which she pleaded for the preservation of democratic institutions and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.

An indication of the harmony and good feeling which existed between the Queen and her subjects is shown by the removal, on Sept. 13, of the ban which hitherto excluded members of the Socialist party from holding rank in the defense forces. This royal decree was a sequel to an earlier announcement of the Premier that the attitude of the Government toward certain parties would depend upon their loyalty.

Foreign Relations.

United States.

The first step in a program for the development and intensification of trade between the Netherlands and the United States was taken by the formation, in the United States, of the Holland House Corporation of the Netherlands which is to serve as a center for the establishment of contacts, and for initiating and carrying on negotiations. The new corporation, now located in Rockefeller Center, New York City, is to have a building of its own which will also contain the Netherlands Chamber of Commerce in New York, the Netherland-American Foundation (cultural), the Netherland Club (social), and the Holland Society of New York (historical). The project is of particular significance for, in 1937, the Netherlands including its possessions ranked fifth among the buyers of American goods. It is estimated that Netherlanders have $1,500,000,000 invested in American industry.

Italy.

Italy's conquest of Ethiopia was formally recognized when Dr. J. B. Hubrecht was appointed Minister of Rome early in the year. At a meeting in Copenhagen of the Foreign Ministers representing the seven 'Oslo powers,' Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and the Netherlands, a declaration was adopted at the closing session of the conference that the covenant of the League of Nations did not require any member of the League to apply sanctions against an aggressor. The influential liberal press in the Netherlands was pleased with this declaration but was disappointed in the failure of the Oslo states to develop closer economic collaboration which might set an example to the rest of the world. At the sessions of the League of Nations, Dr. Jan Patijn, Foreign Minister of the Netherlands, declared that his country was temporarily suspending the obligatory sanction provisions of Article XVI of the League Covenant. He took care to specify that he included not only economic sanctions but also the obligation to allow troops from countries that were enforcing the League Covenant to pass through the Netherlands. He reserved the right of his Government to decide each case on its merits.

Germany.

At the close of the year 1938 relations between Germany and the Netherlands became somewhat strained. The German Government made representations at The Hague in regard to criticism in the Netherlands press of Germany's anti-Jewish policy. Germany severed all contact with the Netherlands in the world of sport and threatened to take economic measures against the Netherlands if the criticism of the press continued. Consequently, Prime Minister Hendrik Colijn asked the press to adopt a less unfriendly attitude toward Germany.

Finances.

For the fiscal year 1939 the ordinary budget deficit was estimated at 142,500,000 guilders. Measures were taken to meet the greater part of this deficit by a new income tax of 2 per cent on all salaries, rents and profits. It was decided to lower indirect taxes in order to effect a more just distribution of the burden. Indirect taxes will yield about 40,000,000 guilders less than before. One hundred thousand on the dole will be put to work reclaiming the Zuyder Zee and on other projects. There has been economic stagnation in the Netherlands during 1938. Therefore, new measures of a mildly protective character to defend certain national industries from inequitable foreign competition have been announced.