1942: Zoology

Reports on Mammals.

The finding of two muskrats with fur of a peculiar wavy type has been reported by Dr. H. L. Dozier of the U. S. Fur Animal Field Station. He reports this as a rare occurrence and suggests that this condition may be hereditary. However, E. A. McIlhenny, a naturalist, later reports that numerous permanently waved specimens are found each year on his muskrat farm. This worker considers the wavy condition due to the rats having been scorched by fire. This problem might easily be settled by experimentally determining whether heredity or external environmental factors such as heat were the determining causes.

As a part of the program to further investigate reproduction in the muskrat, Dr. T. R. Forbes of the Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior, Swarthmore, Pa., has determined by histological study that the male muskrat in Maryland begins spermatogenesis in the middle of December and the female starts ovulation in the middle of February with seasonal gonadal activity terminating in both sexes approximately during the latter part of October.

David B. Cook, of the New York State Conservation Department, reported on the food habits of the beaver. It is generally recognized that beaver relish the bark on trees. However, it is also recognized now that these animals also feed on grass, roots, tubers, seed heads, and flowers.

The Forest Service reported that the Rocky Mountain goats, found only in the United States, and heretofore only in Washington, Idaho, and Montana, are now existing in the Black Hills of South Dakota. A few of these animals escaped while on exhibition in South Dakota and have adjusted themselves so well to this environment that the herd has now increased to twenty-five through the natural process of reproduction.

The Newfoundland Department of Natural Resources has completed a survey of the island with the thought of introducing either the American white-tail or the English red deer. At the present time only the black bear and the woodland caribou are native to Newfoundland and the moose has been the only large game animal which has been introduced and become established with any degree of success up to this time.

Prof. A. R. Shadle and W. R. Ploss of the University of Buffalo report what is believed to be only the second case on record of the birth of a porcupine in captivity. The young animal had its incisor teeth well developed and was able to exhibit regular porcupine defense reactions. The infant continued nursing until it was three and one-half months old. This is another instance in which zoologists are better able to obtain life history studies of animals when little of this sort has been reported heretofore.

British Columbia authorities report that experiments are now being conducted on the feeding of fur-bearing animals with sea-lions. The latter have heretofore been considered a major nuisance by West Coast fishermen because of the number of fish they consume. However, the problem of how to obtain these sea-lions in sufficient amounts for food at a low cost has not been worked out satisfactorily as yet.

Reports on Birds.

R. E. Danforth of Noank, Conn., reports that black-capped chickadees make a substantial part of their winter diet on 'jumping plant-lice' along the Connecticut shore. The plant-lice of two species, Calophya flavida and C. nigripennis were found upon sumacs in this region and the birds were observed eating, not only the fruit clusters, but also the lice from the stems.

Dr. W. S. Bullough of the University of Leeds reports that the starling may be a responsible carrier of hoof-and-mouth disease. Heretofore, authorities have succeeded in stamping out each outbreak of the disease soon after its discovery, but the origin of the disease has remained undiscovered. The migrating starling, as a carrier of the virus, now is considered a possibility and further studies will no doubt prove whether this is the case or not.

Drs. P. D. Dalke, W. K. Clark, Jr., and L. J. Korschgen of the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Unit have shown that wild turkeys are great destroyers of harmful beetles. They have shown that turkeys in the Ozark region of Missouri feed on grasshoppers, stinkbugs, beetles, and ants for about 25 per cent of their diet while the other 75 per cent is made up of grass seeds, acorns, etc.

Aquatic Life.

C. N. Feast, director of the Colorado Game and Fish Commission, has discovered that trout raised in a hatchery can be distinguished from those that are hatched and grown in their native habitat by an examination of their dorsal fins. Mr. Feast states that trout grown to legal size in a hatchery have dorsal fins somewhat degenerated through crowding. When these fish are released in streams the fins develop, but malformations of various sorts are the usual case. Hence, this serves as a mark of identification which is generally sufficiently accurate to allow for observations on percentages in stream surveys.

C. E. Porter of Santiago, Chile, and W. L. Schmitt of Washington, D. C., report the identification of a free-living fresh water jellyfish from South America. Mr. Fick, an engineer, collected the specimen near Quilqué, a Province of Valparaíso, in March and sent it to the above authors for identification. This record is the first for the free-living fresh water medusae, Craspedacusta somerbii (Lankester), from South America.

Dr. Harvey Bassler of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, reports an account of an attack of a sting-ray on man. Authentic personal records of such occurrences are rare with none heretofore authentically reported from the Amazon Basin. From the brief account reported by the above author, it appears that the sting-ray's sting is definitely poisonous to man. While not fatal, evidently the sting is accompanied with almost unendurable pain.

Dr. Clarence R. Shoemaker of the U. S. National Museum Scientific staff has recently described a small crustacean animal and named it in honor of President Roosevelt. This new species known as Neomeganphopus roosevelti, is an important item in the diet of fish in Magdalena Bay on the coast of Lower California. It was collected on the 1938 Presidential cruise, by Dr. W. L. Schmitt of the Museum staff.

Extinct Fauna.

Another large mammal has recently been added to the extinct pre-tundra fauna known from Alaska. This mammal, a ground sloth known technically as representing a species of the Megalonyx, was found during extensive explorations of the Childs Frick Expedition in cooperation with the University of Alaska. The site of discovery, as reported by Chester Stock of the California Institute of Technology, occurs on Cripple Creek, approximately fifteen miles Southwest of Fairbanks. Heretofore, this genus has been associated with the Pleistocene forest faunas of the more southerly regions of North America. The occurrence in Alaska, therefore, extends the geographic range considerably to the north of its previously known distribution.

Fossils, mainly ancient relatives of crabs and crayfish known as trilobites, have been found in a series of limestone strata long thought to be barren of such evidences.

The strata, known as the Maryville formation and of the mid-Cambrian age occurs in many regions in the chain of Eastern Mountains. These fossils are related to similar forms found in the Rocky Mountains and present further evidence that life existed half a billion years ago in a region where the Appalachian Mountains are now located.

1942: Yukon Territory

The completion of the Alaskan Highway by the United States in mid-November 1942 is expected to contribute greatly to the development of Yukon and the Northwest Territories. See CIVIL ENGINEERING.

1942: Yugoslavia

As the result of German aggression in April 1941 Yugoslavia has been temporarily divided up among its neighbors. Germany, Italy, Bulgaria and Hungary each took a part of Yugoslavia, while the remaining portions of the kingdom formed two puppet states, one Croatia (see CROATIA), an outright Fascist state, collaborating closely with Germany and Italy, the other Serbia, administered by a government under Gen. Milan Neditch, each occupied and supervised by Italian and German troops. Of the three racially and linguistically closely related peoples, the Serbs, the Croats and the Slovenes, the worst fate befell the Serbs and the Slovenes. The territory of the Slovenes was divided between Germany and Italy and annexed by these two nations. The deeply Catholic, peaceful people of Slovenia were driven out of their villages and when they resisted their enslavement, cruelly persecuted and many hundreds of them executed. Yugoslavia presents probably the most unhappy land in Europe, because it was not only divided among the conquerors — or rather it was divided up by the German conquerors between three nations, Italian, Bulgarian and Hungarian, who had contributed nothing to the conquest and only afterwards had tried to get their share of the flesh of the helpless victim — but it is also torn by internal dissensions between Democrats and Fascists, between Serbs and Croats.

To the terror and cruelty of the occupying armies of Germans, Italians, Hungarians and Bulgarians must be added the bitterness of civil war. Thus the number of Yugoslavs killed by the invaders or in internal warfare has been estimated for the last 18 months at no less than 500,000, among them many women and children. In many instances whole villages were destroyed and all the inhabitants killed.

Armed Resistance.

In the mountains of central Serbia the remnants of the Yugoslav regular army resisted the German and Italian attempts to destroy them. They were under the command of Gen. Dragoljub Mihailovich, who succeeded in building up an army which was believed at one time to number as many as 150,000 men. Though this army suffered from lack of equipment, it carried on a most successful guerrilla warfare against the Axis conquerors. At various times it has gained control of large parts of Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro. It was helped everywhere by patriots and by the dissatisfied peasantry. It succeeded in raiding Axis garrisons and utilizing their supply stores, exterminating smaller Axis posts and even fighting some real battles with fully equipped enemy divisions. Besides regular soldiers many Chetniks or volunteers are fighting under General Mihailovich. The puppet governments of Serbia and Croatia have taken most energetic measures to annihilate and suppress the Chetnik movement, but they seem to have failed, in spite of the fact that the supplies of General Mihailovich ran low and that a dangerous split occurred in the ranks of the forces fighting the Axis. In any case, Yugoslavia is the only one of the occupied nations who maintained a real armed force in the field and did not confine itself to underground activity. It was helped in this by the mountainous and rugged character of the country and the fierce spirit of independence of its population.

In the second half of 1942 groups of partisans separated from General Mihailovich's army and opposed Mihailovich, though carrying on the fight against the Axis with great determination. It was reported that frequent clashes between the patriot army of General Mihailovich and the partisans occurred, in any case mutual recrimination and suspicions were voiced. The partisans who called themselves the 'people's army,' seemed to be under Communist leadership, though they included sincere patriots and some rather doubtful elements who were driven by despair to pillage and lawlessness. The people's army was apparently supported by the Soviet Union and Communist sources accused Mihailovich of connivance with the Fascists. Yet it seemed probable that Mihailovich wished only to maintain some army discipline and to preserve his forces until the day when the United Nations would be able to launch a Balkan offensive. In any case the Yugoslav fighters forced the Axis to maintain large forces in Yugoslavia.

Yugoslav Government.

The Yugoslav government in London continued its confidence in General Mihailovich. It named him Minister of War and Chief of Staff and gave him full military and administrative powers. The Yugoslav government was reconstituted on Jan. 12 when Slobodan Jovanovitch, a former professor of the University of Belgrade and well known for his liberal views, became Prime Minister.

The importance of Yugoslavia and her continuous resistance was recognized by the fact that the United States raised the Yugoslav legation to the rank of an embassy. The Yugoslav government tried also to prepare the way for a better peace in the Balkan peninsula after the war by concluding in January 1942 a treaty of confederation with the Greek government. This treaty anticipated the cooperation of the two nations in the field of foreign policy, of military defense and of economic matters. Special organizations were to be created to determine the details of the cooperation in these three fields and the confederation was to be regarded as the nucleus of a future Balkan union.

1942: Wyoming

Area and Population.

The eighth largest state in the Union, Wyoming has an area of 97,506 sq. mi., of which 320 are covered by water. Of the total, 3,426 sq. mi. are comprised within Yellowstone National Park, and 150 sq. mi. in the Grand Teton National Park.

The population was listed in 1940 as 250,742, of whom 93,577 were urban and 157,165 rural, the urban population having increased 33.5 per cent between 1930 and 1940, and the rural 1.1 per cent. Of the total population, 246,597 are whites, 956 Negroes, and 2,349 Indians.

In 1940 there were 89 incorporated towns in Wyoming, and of these only six had a population of 5,000 or over: Cheyenne, 22,474; Casper, 17,964; Laramie, 10,627; Sheridan, 10,529; Rock Springs, 9,827; and Rawlins, 5,531. The Japanese relocation center, built during the summer of 1942 near Cody, and named Heart Mountain, contains a population of approximately 11,385.

Education.

The public schools in Wyoming have an enrollment of 55,904 students, with a total of 71,445 persons of school age (6 to 21). The total number of public schools is 1,024, classified as follows: high schools, 96; elementary schools, 225; and rural schools, 703. The average annual salary of teachers is $1,152 for the elementary schools, and $1,388 for the secondary.

The total operating cost for Wyoming schools is slightly over $6,000,000 annually.

Wyoming schools have been quick to adjust their educational programs to the needs of the war emergency, and this is revealed by the fact that 31 of the high schools, or about one third, are now offering preflight aeronautics. Approximately 600 senior high school students are now receiving preliminary preflight training.

Many adjustments in the school program have been made to accelerate the training of youth for war service. Two thirds of Wyoming high schools are today offering some type of physical education program for their students. Offerings in both science and mathematics have been expanded in keeping with the recommendation of the Army and Navy, and other governmental agencies. Three or more full units of science are available in 70 per cent of the high schools, and in 31 per cent of the schools 4 or more units in science are offered. About 64 per cent of the high schools are offering three or more complete units in the field of mathematics.

Minerals.

Investigations conducted in connection with defense have established that there are more than a score of valuable minerals and compounds in Wyoming, including coal, iron, ferro-alloys, titanium, vanadium, chrome, manganese, bentonite, potash, phosphate, gypsum, limestone, dolomite, graphite, kyanite, silica, asphalt, vermiculite, mica, beryl, tin, and asbestos. The state has an estimated 1,761,000,000,000 tons of recoverable coal, 400,000,000 barrels of oil reserves, 250,000,000 of them asphaltic oil suitable for synthetic rubber, highway construction, and roofing material, besides petroleum coke and large reserves of natural gas.

Agriculture.

Wyoming is semi-arid, and agriculture is carried on by irrigation and by 'dry farming.' The state's principal crop is hay, with wheat ranking second. Other crops in order of importance are sugar beets, beans, corn, oats, barley and potatoes. Turkeys add approximately $500,000 yearly, to the farmers' income, and butter, cheese, milk and cream are estimated to be worth $1,500,000 annually.

Extensive migration of workers including farm laborers from the state, produced acute labor shortages during 1942. Even though there are few substantial war industries in Wyoming, the employment of women already far exceeds that of the last war. Railroads are employing more workers than at any time in history, and are overburdened by the impact of an unprecedented volume of business.

Agriculture sustained considerable losses due to labor scarcity during the harvest. This was partially offset by the participation of business men and school children in the harvest work, and by the employment of some of the Japanese from the War Relocation Center. The drain on manpower by selective service is a prime factor in hindering full mobilization of the mineral, agricultural, and industrial resources.

Defense.

Each of the twenty-three counties of the state has a Defense Council and some of the incorporated towns are also organized and function under a County Council.

In cooperation with the American Legion, a training school was held at Casper in July 1942, and more than one hundred persons from different parts of the state were trained in the work of the U. S. Defense Corps. Volunteers numbering 23,986, 9.6 per cent of the total population of Wyoming, are enrolled in Civilian Defense, with 10,103 having completed their training. This ranks Wyoming, on a per capita basis, second in organization in the Seventh Defense Region. The State Guard was organized as a unit of civilian defense in 1941, but has experienced a large turnover in members due to the numbers joining the armed forces or entering defense work elsewhere.

State Officers.

Governor, Dr. Lester C. Hunt; Secretary of State, Mart T. Christensen; Auditor, Wm. (Scotty) Jack; Treasurer, Earl Wright; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Esther L. Anderson.

United States Senators:

Joseph C. O'Mahoney, E. V. Robertson.

1942: World War II

Global Character of the Conflict.

The year 1942 saw the global war unfold itself in all its world-wide compass. The declarations of war by Japan and Germany and her satellites in December 1941 had forced the United States into war. In spite of the fact that the global intentions of the Fascist aggressor nations had been clearly manifest and even openly avowed, the United States was not sufficiently prepared. The result was that Japan could gain by its attack such an initial advantage against the American navy and air force at Pearl Harbor and in the Philippine Islands that she could launch her campaign of conquest for the first part of 1942 almost without any serious counter-challenge. The British, hard pressed by numerically superior enemies across the Channel and in the Near East, could not spare sufficient equipment to hold their Far-Eastern possessions. Thus the war began under unfavorable circumstances for the Allied nations. Yet this picture changed in the course of the year.

By the end of 1942 three factors, at least two of which came to many as a surprise, made themselves more and more felt: the growing mobilization of the technological, economic, and manpower resources of the United States of America — a most impressive achievement; the magnificent power of endurance and resilience of the Soviet armies and industry; and finally the surprising strength of Great Britain, which, though most savagely bombed from the air and beset by submarines on the seas, had been able to reach a peak of production especially in airplanes, which put it, at least in quality of its forces and matériel, at the top. By the end of 1942 it had become clear that the relative strength of the United Nations was growing, while that of the Axis was declining, a situation which in all probability will not only go on but become more and more pronounced and accelerated in the years to come. The only member of the United Nations in which improvement in conditions was not marked was China. Her situation had deteriorated. Responsible for that circumstance was the Japanese conquest of Burma, the backdoor to China and containing the starting point of the famous Burma Road over which China got the supplies from the United States and Great Britain, that enabled her to supply her army, at least partially, with the essential heavy equipment. The closing of the Burma Road rendered the military and economic position of China most difficult. In view of the need of equipment in Australia and India, the United States was unable to furnish China with any considerable number of military and transport planes to ease the situation. It was only the indomitable courage of the Chinese that made it possible for them to keep in the war and even to gain some advantages over the Japanese by local offensives. The British offensive from India against the Burmese Port of Akyab at the end of December, 1942, increased the hope that a full scale offensive would be launched early in 1943 against the Japanese in Burma.

1942: World Peace

Solidarity of the United Nations the First Essential.

In the year 1942, when the possibility of the victory of the United Nations became greater and greater, the public and private discussions of foundations for the coming peace grew in importance. It was generally agreed that the best, and probably even an indispensable, foundation of world peace would be the continued solidarity of the United Nations, which is also the absolute prerequisite of victory. It had been clear for some time that Germany, and to a lesser degree Japan, put hope in their ability, in case of defeat, to utilize the disunity among the victors for another trial at world domination, as they had done after 1918, when the victorious Allies began immediately to quarrel among themselves and to distrust one another, thus diverting their own attention from a lasting settlement with Germany. There is some hope that this fatal mistake will not be repeated. Already the name 'United Nations' binds the nations more closely together than they were held by the term 'Allied and Associated Nations.' Each of the United Nations knows today that she is fighting for her own survival, and that this survival is conditioned by a close cooperation. The lend-lease agreements also tend to create a much more closely-knit unity among the United Nations, in spite of their ideological and geographic differences. More important than anything else is the growing awareness of the public that peace in the twentieth century can never be found in isolation and national egotism, but only in international solidarity and responsibility. Both major parties in the United States are now pledged officially to a program of world peace by cooperation after the war.

Disarmament of Aggressor Nations a Second Essential.

The second important prerequisite of world peace, already accepted by all the United Nations, is the complete disarmament of the aggressor nations, a disarmament this time closely and strictly supervised, so as to make impossible such secret rearmament as Germany started in 1919 and fostered so that twenty years after Germany's defeat, she was the most powerfully armed nation on earth, while the victor nations — the United States, Great Britain and France — were materially and morally disarmed. But this supervision of the disarmament of the aggressor nations demands the closest collaboration of the United Nations after victory, a collaboration which must create its own permanent organs of executive, legislative, and judicial power.

Steps Already Taken Toward World Peace.

Resolutions of the American Republics.

Of official steps taken towards the establishment of world peace three sets of agreements should be mentioned, though all deal as yet only with partial or regional problems. One is the set of resolutions adopted at the conference of the foreign ministers of all American republics in Rio de Janeiro at the end of January 1942, laying down the rules for a closer military, economic, and diplomatic cooperation of all the American republics. All the American republics carried out these resolutions in letter and in spirit, except Chile and (especially) Argentina. But many American republics, among them the two most populous, Mexico and Brazil, entered the war against the Axis and thus expressed full solidarity with the cause of the United Nations. (In January 1943 Chile broke relations with the Axis.)

Agreements Made by Baltic and Balkan Nations.

Another set of agreements concerns Central Europe, the most important belt of many nationalities and states from the Baltic to the Aegean Sea which forms a barrier against German and Russian expansion. The existence of these national states not only accords with the demands of justice for all nations, small and large alike, but it is also one of the necessities of peace; however, only under the condition that these nations collaborate most closely. Otherwise, their disunion makes them an easy prey and a temptation for the aggressive desires of their more powerful neighbors. The disunion and mutual jealousies of the nations of eastern and central Europe and of the Balkans facilitated the designs of the aggressors. In the year 1942 the foundations were laid for a closer collaboration of the nations of that region. On Jan. 15, 1942, the governments of Greece and Yugoslavia concluded an agreement concerning the constitution of a Balkan union. The agreement promises coordination of the foreign policy and of the military preparations of the two nations and the elaboration of a common economic plan with a customs union and the common development of all means of communication. A similar agreement between the governments of Poland and Czechoslovakia, concluded on Jan. 23, 1942, went even further in establishing a confederation to assure a common policy with regard to foreign affairs, defense, economic and financial matters, social questions, transport, posts, and telegraphs. Both these unions expressed their desire to welcome other states of the region as members and to cooperate in establishing a strong basis for peace from the Baltic to the Aegean Sea.

Treaty Between Britain and the Soviet Union.

Yet the most important, and easily the first major step in the right direction, is the treaty between Great Britain and the Soviet Union, May 26, 1942. It established not only a pact of mutual assistance during the war, but, for at least twenty years, the basis of close cooperation in the maintenance of peace in Europe. It removed the danger of conflicting spheres of interest of the two great powers in post-war Europe. The alliance is not regarded as an exclusive Soviet-British concern, but as a nucleus for union with other like-minded states for common action to preserve peace. The agreement expressed the determination of the two countries not to seek any territorial expansion and not to interfere in the internal affairs of other nations.

The United States and Canada.

Though not yet formally concluded, a similar step towards the coming peace was taken in an exchange of notes between the United States and Canada, made public on Dec. 1, which set forth the principles guiding the two governments in approaching post-war problems. They were looking forward to the early beginning of conversations with the other United Nations, with the view to establishing now the foundations upon which there may be created after the war a better system of production, exchange, and consumption of goods for the satisfaction of human needs in all countries willing to join in the effort. Canada and the United States are already bound together by the Agreement of Ogdensburg for the joint defense of the two countries and by the Agreement of Hyde Park for economic collaboration in the production of war materials for Great Britain. The agreements with Canada include the same statement as the lend-lease agreements with Great Britain, namely, that the two governments 'are engaged in a cooperative undertaking, together with every other nation or people of like mind, to the end of laying the basis of a just and enduring world peace, securing order under law to themselves and all nations.' Post-war settlements must promote economic relations advantageous on a world-wide scale. The two governments hope, in cooperation with all other countries of like mind, for the elimination of all forms of discriminatory treatment in international commerce, and the reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers. In their conversations the two governments 'will seek to furnish to the world concrete evidence of the ways in which two neighboring countries that have a long experience of friendly relations and a high degree of economic interdependence, and that share the conviction that such reciprocally beneficial relations must form part of a general system, may promote by agreed action their mutual interests to the benefit of themselves and other countries.'

Declarations in the Speeches of Statesmen.

In addition to these official treaties and agreements shaping the future of world peace, many important official declarations were made in speeches of responsible statesmen. The most important official declaration on the part of the United States was an address by Mr. Cordell Hull, the Secretary of State, on July 23, 1942, in which he pointed out that 'the conflict now raging throughout the earth is not a local or regional war or even a series of such wars. On the side of our enemy it is an attempt to conquer every country. On our side it is a life-and-death struggle for the preservation of our very existence. We are united in our determination to destroy the world-wide forces of ruthless conquest and brutal enslavement.' After the war the nations must create 'some international agency which can — by force, if necessary — keep the peace among nations in the future.' Peace presupposes respect for law and obligations. 'One of the institutions which must be established and be given vitality is an international court of justice. It is equally clear that the United Nations must exercise surveillance over aggressor nations. Until such time as the latter demonstrate their willingness and ability to live at peace during the formative period of the world organization, interruption by these aggressors must be rendered impossible.' Finally, barriers hindering international trade must be removed. These were the foundations of a lasting world peace as foreseen by the American Secretary of State. 'Without impediment to the fullest prosecution of the war the United Nations should from time to time formulate and proclaim their common views regarding fundamental policies which will chart for mankind a wise course based on enduring spiritual values. In support of such policies, an informed public opinion must be developed. Never did so great and so compelling a duty in this respect devolve upon those who are in positions of responsibility, public and private.'

A similar spirit animates the address delivered by Mr. Sumner Welles, Under Secretary of State, at the Arlington National Amphitheater on May 30, 1942. He predicted that the United States and the other United Nations would disarm the aggressors and share in an international police power, to insure freedom from fear to peace-loving peoples, until a permanent system of international security should be firmly established. He saw in the United Nations the nucleus of a world organization of the future. At the same time 'a new frontier of human welfare' would be set up by a better distribution of the products of world economy among the peoples of the world. 'When the victory is won the people of the United States will once more be afforded the opportunity to play their part in the determination of the kind of world in which they will live. With courage, with vision, they can yet secure the future safety of their country and of its free institutions and help the nations of the earth back into the path of peace.' Other important speeches by leading American statesmen were the address delivered by Vice President Henry A. Wallace in New York on May 8, 1942, and the address by Herbert Hoover, former President of the United States, on Dec. 16, 1942.

Punishment of War Criminals an Essential.

One of the essential prerequisites in establishing a lasting world peace is the punishment of war criminals. The governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Free France, Greece, Norway, the Netherlands, Poland, Luxemburg, and Yugoslavia pledged themselves on Jan. 13 to exact swift retribution of everyone guilty of perpetrating atrocities in the occupied countries. China demanded similar action against Japan. The governments in exile, joined this time by the governments of the United States, of Great Britain, and of the Soviet Union, adopted in December a joint declaration condemning the bestial Nazi policy that aims at the extermination of the Jews and warning that these crimes will not escape retribution.

Organizations Working for Lasting Peace.

As Secretary Hull emphasized, informed public opinion is the necessary prerequisite for the establishment of a lasting peace. A number of private organizations are active in that field, among them the Commission to Study the Organization of Peace (in New York City), the Commission to Study the Basis of a Just and Durable Peace (Federal Council of Churches in America), and Federal Union, which hopes and works for the establishment of a democratic world federation. It is interesting to note that in the elections of Nov. 3, 1942, the Massachusetts Committee of Federal Union succeeded in submitting to the voters in 42 electoral districts of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts a referendum as to whether or not they favor initiative by the United States Government for establishment of a democratic world government. The districts chosen represented a cross section of the whole state, districts with Republican as well as with Democratic majorities, rural and urban districts, districts with predominantly old American stock and districts with predominantly more recent immigrant stock. All the districts voted in favor of the resolution, always with a large majority, which averaged about 3 to 1 in favor of world government. The referendum has clearly shown that the American public is veering towards peace by international collaboration and collective security.

1942: Workmen's Compensation

The tempo of war-time production has placed an added responsibility upon management, labor, and the Government to reduce the loss of manpower and the waste of time arising from industrial accidents. Because of the increased army of women workers as well as non-industrial workers who have entered the army of war production, the actual industrial accident rate has increased.

In 1941 there were 19,200 deaths due to industrial accidents, and 100,000 permanent impairments. There were 2,060,400 temporary disabilities. A total of 42,083,000 days of work were lost during the year. Six industries were responsible for the highest rate of industrial accidents:

(1) Iron and steel — estimated — 74,300 disabilities with a loss of 7,000,000 man-days.

(2) Lumber — estimated — 66,800 disabilities with a loss of 7,250,000 man-days.

(3) Machinery — 56,600 injuries with a loss of 4,500,000 man-days.

(4) Food production — 45,200 injuries with a loss of 3,500,000 man-days.

(5) Textile — 45,200 injuries with a loss of not quite 3,000,000 man-days.

(6) Transportation equipment — 37,500 injuries with a loss of 4,500,000 man-days.

(7) Stone, clay-glass — 20,600 injuries with a loss of 2,000,000 man-days.

In June 1940 the Secretary of Labor created the National Committee for the Conservation of Manpower in War Industries. Its principal objective was to sponsor and supervise plans whereby every industrial establishment operating under Government contract would have available, without cost, information and expert service to assist it in developing safety programs designed to:

(1) Prevent the maiming, killing, and injuring of trained workers essential to industries engaged in war production.

(2) Prevent the loss of valuable production time on the part of workers through sickness, accidental injury, and occupational disease.

(3) Prevent disruption of and delays to production schedules, damage to machines and equipment, and wastage of materials which follow in the wake of accidents.

(4) Control, insofar as possible, all environmental factors which may render the worker less fit for the job of maintaining quantity and quality production.

There were few legislative changes in the field of workmen's compensation in 1942. The State Supreme Court of Ohio held valid special compensation schedules for silicosis as one of twenty-two specific occupational diseases. The state of Rhode Island passed a compulsory health insurance law to go into operation Apr. 1, 1943. This provided needed cash compensation for unemployment caused by the worker's sickness disability. It does not provide medical care. The act is to be administered by the state unemployment compensation board.

Because of the labor shortage a series of experiments encouraging the use of the physically handicapped in war industry were initiated. The State Department of Education of Connecticut organized several rehabilitation clinics in an attempt to salvage the physically handicapped for war production. Potential employers were invited to visit the clinics to ascertain what special jobs could be filled by the physically handicapped with a degree of special training.

1942: Work Projects Administration

The activities of the Work Projects Administration during 1942 were largely directed toward the war effort. Special provisions incorporated by Congress in the Act appropriating funds for WPA operations in the fiscal year 1942, as in 1941, facilitated the cooperation of the WPA in the Nation's war program. Projects certified by the Secretary of War or the Secretary of the Navy as important for military or naval purposes were exempted from many restrictions that usually apply to WPA projects, thus speeding their completion.

More than two-fifths of the total WPA employment on June 30, 1942 was devoted to war projects. The general scope of WPA activities did not materially change, however, and valuable contributions were made to the physical facilities and public services of communities throughout the country. The construction and improvement of highways, roads, and streets continued to be a major activity. New airports were built and many enlarged or improved.

WPA workers continued to construct and improve public buildings, including armories, mess halls, warehouses, and other buildings at military and naval establishments. Among the public buildings were schools, hospitals, libraries, gymnasiums, and other structures for community use.

WPA activities provided a wide variety of community services important to the public welfare. These services included adult education classes; nursery schools; school lunches; medical and health services; and clerical, research, and professional assistance to many local and Federal governmental agencies.

A major activity of the WPA since July 1940 has been the vocational training project set up under the national defense program. Through this project workers are trained in those manual occupations essential to war industries. At the end of June 1942 about 36,000 WPA workers were employed on training projects, bringing the total number enrolled in vocational training courses during the two-year period to about 265,000.

Under the nation-wide scrap collection project sponsored by the War Production Board the WPA expanded its work of removing steel rails. Between Oct. 1, 1941, and Sept. 30, 1942, nearly 96,000 tons of steel rails were collected. The WPA also participated in the collection of scrap from agricultural and urban sources in cooperation with the WPB. WPA workers collected 194,000 tons of scrap metal from the latter part of April through Oct. 20, 1942.

The WPA nursery school program, in operation in every state, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands since July 1935, has almost doubled its activities in response to war needs. Special provision for this program was made in the 1943 Appropriation Act which stipulated that not less than $6,000,000 of appropriated funds be used for day nurseries and nursery schools for children of employed mothers.

The WPA program operated on a smaller scale during the fiscal year 1942 than in any previous year. During this period an average of about 970,000 workers were employed on WPA projects.

Under orders of President Roosevelt issued on Dec. 4, 1942, however, the Work Projects Administration will be liquidated as promptly as possible during the first half of 1943. Because of increasing job opportunities for project workers, work relief project operations will be closed out in many states by February 1943 and in others thereafter as soon as feasible.

1942: Women's Fashions

Effect of the War.

In the year 1942, global war was the gruesome force affecting every phase of life, private, social and business. In the fashion industry, designers were put to the test of creating styles with less materials than they were accustomed to use. Limited by WPB (War Production Board) regulations L85, L90, L116, the vital essence of the fashion business — changing styles — was no longer permissible. The prevention of style obsolescence of clothes already in wardrobes was a necessity. 'Buy for actual needs' was the slogan.

Fabrics for fashion merchandise experienced limitations of weave and type and certain colors, especially in the fall and winter seasons. Pure virgin wool was still noted on garment tags, but it was evident that mills were using more and more mixtures of new wool with rayon, cotton, reused and reprocessed wool, and aralac. This latter is a protein fibre resembling wool — a byproduct of milk. Two leading woolens for coats were fleece and a soft, smooth monotone. Suit fabrics were men's wear striped flannels, small patterned effects, checks and plaids. Rayons stressed few novelties — classic types were featured for a wartime economy. Heavier rayons in gabardine and twill weaves, to replace scarce woolens, were notable; also jerseys, velvets, velveteens, corduroys and staple cottons.

Pure silks and nylon were unavailable except in few prewar stocks. Nylon fleece was introduced (a waste product of the nylon used for war materials). This is warm, long wearing, mothproof, water-repellant, and held promise for a bright postwar future.

Attractive colors were highlighted, although limited in variations of shades because of government conservation of dyes. In fact, color in clothes was stressed as an antidote for a wartime world, a fillip for spirits and morale. In the spring, perennial navy, black, gray and beige were punctuated more than usual with lively colors as red, green and purple. These were used also in entire costumes from hat to shoes, but the smarter effect was the bright color as accent, or if used for the garment subdued by accessories in dark shades.

The story of silhouettes in 1942 was simplification of line. Skirt widths, jacket lengths, linings, pockets, cuffs, lapels, belts and the use of rubber were restricted. The latter was felt especially in the making of foundation garments. And so manufacturers produced apparel in accordance. Shoulders were decidedly modified but retained a squared effect. The body line was characterized by supple molded details which were essentially feminine but not fussy. Skirt widths were narrower but not uncomfortably or unbecomingly tight. Lengths in all apparel were the required 16 or 17 inches from the ground.

Suits.

Suits were again hailed as a 'must for spring' and in this war year loomed even more important as the all-important costume in the wardrobe the year-round. Attractively designed uniforms of the auxiliary services of the fighting forces and those of the civilian volunteer organizations were in good part inspirational for this greater popularity for suits. Jacket and skirt outfits even appeared at 'don't dress' dinner dates. And because fabrics were simple in weave and surface interest, embroidered and other trimming details were prevalent, lending a gay, dressy note to an otherwise simple costume. Braid, sequins, fringe, fur were noted, especially in the fall.

Dresses.

Although suits were more popular than ever, the dress as such was not neglected. Attractive prints for undercoat wear emerged for spring through summer wear. Crepes, rayon jerseys, failles and bengalines were highlighted spring dress fabrics followed by sheerer, lighter weight rayons and cottons for summer with shantung and linen-like weaves prevalent. Linen itself was very scarce, since 80 per cent of this flax was imported from Russia. Dress styling had distinctive front details, as draping for a swathed hipline, draped bodices for a soft effect. Necklines were flattering — fewer collarless types. New were soft bows tying high and a classic was the Barrymore shirt collar descending to a low V. To overcome the increasing shortages of such items as slide fasteners for closings, drawstrings appeared at waistlines, a side drape over a generous front lap tied at the side. Decorative buttons in still available plastics, other novelties or jeweled styles were favored.

Fall again saw no definite change in dress silhouette but there were some new notes as pegtops and envelope drapes which gave a feminine touch; also modified dirndl effects in skirt fronts gave the impression of fullness but in no way exceeded the required width. In tailored and sports dresses, classic styles and a model inspired by the 'trench coat' were featured. In colors, it was black as usual augmented by lively colors with purples and winter white among the popular novelties. The demand for formal evening attire fell off considerably. While the long evening dress was not out of the picture, the rule was short dinner dresses, and these depended on the previously mentioned glitter embroideries for a formal note. Especially interesting were warm-fabric evening dresses and be-jeweled sweaters worn when indoor thermometers registered many degrees under pre-war times.

Coats.

In coats, Chesterfields in both fitted and casual box types were outstanding. Velvet collars and bandings were their important trimmings. The untrimmed cloth coat appeared to exceed the fur trimmed type. In the latter, the tuxedo fur front was a first fashion. 'Teen age girls favored the 'teddy bear' sports coat in a fabric-fur, usually trimmed with contrasting colorful fabric for its little collar and front closing. Fur coats had no restrictions in styling and there was continued popularity for Persians, beaver, mink and muskrats, the latter received interesting new treatments dyed and manipulated to look like mink or sable.

Sportswear.

Sportswear took on new meaning in 1942. Associated with outdoor activity, in this war year, it became even more utilitarian, doubling for work and play. Sales of slacks increased tremendously, culottes had new appeal; sweaters, blouses, jackets and skirts were in great demand. Specially designed work clothes were worn by women on defense jobs.

Accessories.

Accessories were very important! In these, too, priorities of materials necessitated innovations. Metal-less jewelry found new use for wood, ceramics, lucite, glass. Sterling silver was featured, but later restricted. Leather shortages affected glove, handbag and shoe styling. Metal frames and slide fasteners disappeared. Shoulder strap handbags were adopted especially by women in uniform. Hosiery in rayon, lisle and novelty cottons appeared. During the summer barelegs became an increasing vogue, and cosmetic liquid stockings were used to give the illusion of silk or nylon. Women went hatless, but this was a whim of fashion, not necessity. Bows instead were worn by young and old alike. The advent of fall brought renewed interest in millinery. Larger hats, taller, berets and cloche bonnets looked newer than tiny pompadour styles which had enjoyed an extended vogue.

And so 1942 witnessed a year of law-abiding fashions keyed to limitations of materials and styling to price ceilings. Grim days still loomed ahead. Rationing of consumer goods had started, winning the war meant continued and greater sacrifices, and the Fashion World was ready.

1942: Wisconsin

Area and Population.

Wisconsin, a north central state, has an area of 56,154 sq. mi. The population in 1940 (U. S. census) was 3,137,587, an increase of 198,581, or 6.8 per cent over 1930. Of this total, 3,112,752 were white persons, 12,265 Indians, 12,158 Negroes, and 412 Chinese, Japanese and others. The foreign-born white population was 289,018. Total urban population was reported as 1,679,144, or 53.5 per cent of the total; and rural population as 1,458,443, or 46.5 per cent. The chief cities and their population (1940 census) were Milwaukee, 587,472; Madison, the capital, 67,447; Racine, 67,195; Kenosha, 48,765; Green Bay, 46,235; La Crosse, 42,707; Sheboygan, 40,638; and Oshkosh, 39,089.

Education.

Education is free for all persons in the state between the ages of 4 and 20 years (831,123 in 1939-1940) and compulsory from 7 to 14 or until graduation. During the year ending June 30, 1942, the state's children were served by 5,408 one-room rural schools, 687 state graded schools, 463 high schools, and 48 separate junior high schools. The state's educational system also includes a large number of schools for handicapped children and 45 vocational schools. During the year ending June 30, 1942, there were 519,642 pupils enrolled in the public schools. Of these, the high schools enrolled 158,043 students. The state had 20,773 teachers in service, 13,771 in the elementary schools, and 7,002 in the high schools. The median monthly salary for teachers in the elementary schools was $107.08, and in high schools, $174.48. Total expenditures for elementary and secondary schools for the year were $51,616,700.

Agriculture.

The total output of Wisconsin's dairy plants in 1941 was the largest on record. The state produced 476,682,000 lb. of cheese in 1941, an increase of 18 per cent over 1940. Butter produced in Wisconsin creameries was reported at 163,887,000 lb., which was about 10 per cent less than the 1940 output. Condensatory products reached a total of 1,394,957,000 lb., an increase of about 31 per cent over 1940. Wisconsin continued to lead all other states in the production of cheese and condensatory products, and ranked third in the production of butter. In 1941 the state produced 50 per cent of the national output of cheese, about 28 per cent of the condensatory products, and about 9 per cent of the butter.

As was the case in the first World War, agricultural income has risen during the present war. In 1941 the farmers of the state had an estimated gross farm income of $468,000,000, which was about 40 per cent above 1940, and was the highest for any year since 1920. Of the gross farm income in 1941, 88 per cent came from livestock and livestock products, leaving only 12 per cent from crops. The index of prices received by Wisconsin farmers rose in October, 1942, to 176 per cent of the level of farm prices during the period 1910-1914, as compared with 155 per cent in 1940. The index of prices the farmers paid in October, 1942, was 156 per cent of the level of prices during the period 1910-1914, which was eighteen points above that of 1941. The purchasing power of the Wisconsin farm dollar rose to 113 per cent of the level of purchasing power during the period 1910-1914, as compared with 112 per cent in October, 1941.

Industry.

In 1939, Wisconsin's 6,717 establishments employed 233,691 salary and wage earners and produced goods with a value of $1,604,507,356. The principal manufactures were lumber, dairy products, boots and shoes, agricultural implements, paper and pulp, electrical machines, meat packing, malt liquors, automobiles, etc. The index of employment in October, 1942 was 140.2 per cent of the 1925-1927 level, as compared with 126.7 per cent a year ago. The index of pay rolls advanced sharply from 173.2 per cent in October, 1941, to 229.3 per cent in October, 1942.

Unemployment Compensation.

Wisconsin's unemployment compensation act became law on January 29, 1932. The law now covers employers who have six or more employes during each of at least eighteen weeks of the calendar year. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1942, benefits totalling $4,679,159 were paid to approximately 46,000 workers. At the close of December, 1941, the net balance of the unemployment fund was approximately $68,000,000. During the calendar year 1941 contributions to the fund totaled $13,512,896.

Finance.

The state budget for the biennium 1941-1943 was $73,868,278, an increase of $2,656,302 over the 1939-1941 budget. The principal increases were for pensions, teachers' colleges, and the University of Wisconsin.

Taxation.

Wisconsin residents paid $214,900,000 in state and local taxes in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1941, as compared with $204,700,000 in 1940, an increase of about 5 per cent. The Federal government collected $121,813,000 in 1941, an increase of about 41 per cent over the $86,388,000 collected in the 1940 fiscal year.

Banking.

On June 30, 1942, Wisconsin had 467 state banks (including six trust companies and four mutual savings banks). Their total deposits were $542,097,000, an increase of $73,866,000 over the $468,231,000 in 470 institutions reported on June 30, 1941. There were 98 national banks operating in the state. Their deposits were $584,173,000 on June 30, 1942, as compared with $529,496,000 in 99 banks in 1941.

Government and Political Events.

The Legislature, composed of a Senate of 33 members and an Assembly of 100 members, meets biennially in odd-numbered years, on the second Wednesday in January. Since there was no session of the Legislature in 1942, there are few important events of a political character to be chronicled. In the November elections the Republicans maintained their majority in both branches. The Legislature which meets in January, 1943, will have 24 Republicans, 6 Progressives and 3 Democrats in the Senate, and 61 Republicans, 24 Progressives, and 15 Democrats in the Assembly.

In November, 1942, Governor Julius P. Heil was defeated by Orland S. Loomis, Progressive, candidate for the governorship by a majority of 105,719 votes. Loomis, the only Progressive elected to a major state office, died Dec. 8, a few weeks before his inauguration. Since he was the first governor-elect of Wisconsin to die before inauguration, his death brought days of uncertainty as to who would become governor. On Dec. 29, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that Lieutenant Governor Walter S. Goodland, 80-year old veteran of Wisconsin politics and a Republican, should become acting governor for the two-year term beginning January 4, 1943.

State Officers.

Governor, Walter S. Goodland; Secretary of State, Fred R. Zimmermann; State Treasurer, John M. Smith; Attorney General, John E. Martin; Superintendent of Public Instruction, John Callahan.

United States Senators:

Robert M. La Follette, Jr., Alexander Wiley.

1942: West Virginia

Area and Population.

West Virginia, originally a part of Virginia, was conditionally admitted to the Union on Dec. 31, 1862, and began to function as the thirty-fifth state on June 20, 1863. With the inclusion in 1866 of Jefferson and Berkeley counties, the boundary remains as thus established. A geological survey, completed about twelve years ago, finally fixed the aggregate area of the 55 counties at 24,282 sq. mi. of which 148 were water surface.

On April 1, 1940, the population of West Virginia was 1,901,974, which represented an increase of 172,769, or 10 per cent, as compared with 1930. The 1940 density was 79 to the square mile, and the total population included representatives of all races.

Huntington, with 78,836, is the largest city, and Charleston, the capital city, with 67,914, is second. Wheeling and Fairmont, among the larger cities, with 61,099 and 23,105 respectively, had less population in 1940 than in 1930. Other important cities in the order of their size (1940) are Clarksburg, 30,579; Parkersburg, 30,103; and Bluefield, 20,641.

Education.

The total pupil enrollment in the 4,744 public primary and elementary schools for 1941-42 was 302,230, or 4,712 less than for the preceding school year. Of this total 18,366 were Negroes, which was 496 less than for 1940-41. The total enrollment of 370 high schools (271 senior and 99 junior) was 141,107, of whom 33,645 were on the junior level. The total for all high schools was 3,014 less than that of the preceding year. There were in addition, 39 private and parochial elementary and high schools. Teachers numbered 16,119, of whom 10,717 were elementary (10,073 white and 644 Negro). Of the 5,028 high-school teachers, 374 were Negroes.

The total cost of public elementary and high-school education in 1941-42 was approximately $31,000,000, of which the state contributed $15,437,285. State funds aggregating $150,000 annually were available for textbooks for children of indigent parents, and a teacher retirement system first became effective for the year 1941-42.

Public Welfare.

In 1941 a more extensive program of public assistance and relief was begun. In response thereto the number of old-age, blind, and dependent children cases rose from about 18,000 in July, 1940, to about 29,500 in July, 1941, and to 37,191 in July, 1942. The general relief loads grew from 12,775 to 14,347 and to 17,470 in February, 1942. For the year 1941-42 $4,150,000 was appropriated for old-age assistance and aid to the blind and to dependent children, and for the same year $3,100,000 was appropriated for general relief under the general welfare act of 1936. General relief was reduced to $2,800,000 for the year 1942-43.

Agriculture.

According to the 1940 census, West Virginia contained 99,282 farms, with total acreage of 8,908,803, or 57.8 per cent of the total area. The average value of farm lands was $30.29 per acre, and they represented a total value of $268,847,642.87. Tenants operated 22.7 per cent of all farm lands, 17.8 per cent of which were used for crops and 22.8 per cent for grazing. Corn was easily the leading product, with a value of $11,076,000. Hay was second, amounting to $9,645,000. The apple crop of 5,024,000 bu. was worth $4,019,000.

Industry.

In 1940 the state reported 3,188 industrial establishments, which employed 230,726 persons and paid $396,884,876.99 in wages. These plants had a total production value of about $898,722,285.80. For the fiscal year 1941-42 chemicals and allied products, among the newer industries, employed 13,932 persons and had a total annual payroll of $34,039,000. Nylon and liveglas, synthetic products, were first made in West Virginia about 1940. Mining excepted, iron, steel, and metal manufacturing, with 43,591 employees and a total annual payroll of $78,570,000, was the state's largest industry. Glass making although one of the oldest industries, was still one of the most important. For the year 1941-42 it employed 15,328 workers, and had a total payroll aggregating $26,924,000.

Other important industries, together with their respective number of employees and total annual payrolls for the fiscal year 1941-42, were lumber and wood products, 15,678 and $16,124,000; clay, stone, sand, and allied products, 13,518 and $20,312,000; and automobiles and trucks, 13,326 and $19,659,000. Total employees, including miners and coke makers, numbered 456,721, and the annual payroll aggregated $727,592,000.

Mining.

Bituminous coal mining is the most important West Virginia extractive industry. Total production for the state in 1941 amounted to 140,944,744 tons. There were 126,214 miners employed and the annual payroll aggregated $230,151,000. Recoverable coal reserves, as of 1941, were 53,312,909,731 tons.

Since 1863, and including 1941, West Virginia has produced 418,345,016 bbl. of crude oil. Reversing the trend of a decade or more, towards lowered production, the amount for 1941 was 3,480,000 bbls., or 53,694 more than for 1940. Boosted by new Oriskany sand developments, natural gas production for 1941 amounted to 170,000,000,000 cu. ft.

Banking and Finance.

For the year ending June 30, 1942, there were 103 state and 77 national banks in West Virginia, with deposits aggregating $176,258,917.46 and $217,197,747.92, respectively. Resources of 22 Federal savings and loans associations were $20,345,193.19. Resources of 38 state building and loan associations were $11,467,338.84. State revenues, from all sources, totalled $61,011,349, of which $19,335,822.26 came from gross sales tax; $10,930,247.25 from consumer's sales tax; $9,459,661.30 from gasoline tax; $4,250,000 from liquor sales; and $2,473,742.26 from the state income tax. Total state revenue disbursements were $62,816,734.49, but a balance from the previous years in addition to transfers left a total net balance, as of June 30, 1942, of $24,027,131.80.

The state road system embraced 4,667.965 miles of improved primary and 11,996.5 miles of improved secondary roads. The total assessed value of public utilities was $661,343,500; personal property $436,074,317; and real estate, $865,480,813. The grand total was $1,962,898,630.

Political Events.

The most important political incident of the year was the November election. Governor Neely, having resigned from the United States Senate to become governor, sought re-election to the Senate, and was defeated by approximately 50,000 votes. At the same time a solid Democratic representation in Congress was divided equally between Republicans and Democrats. Kay Thomas, Democrat, was elected attorney general, to fill a vacancy caused by the earlier resignation of Clarence W. Meadows to become judge of the Tenth judicial circuit. Thomas took the oath but has not taken office. His right to do so is being contested on the score that he is in the Federal armed service and is therefore ineligible. W. S. Wysong, appointed to succeed Meadows, is thus the acting attorney general.

State Officers.

Governor, M. Mansfield Neely; Secretary of State, William S. O'Brien; Superintendent of Schools, William W. Trent; Treasurer, Richard E. Talbott; Auditor, Edgar B. Sims; Attorney General (acting), W. S. Wysong.

United States Senators:

Harley M. Kilgore, Chapman J. Revercomb.

1942: Washington

Area and Population.

The state of Washington, in the northwest corner of continental United States, has an area of 68,192 sq. mi, ranking it 19th among the states, and a population of 1,736,191 (1940) ranking it 30th in that regard. This was an increase of 172,795, or 11.1 per cent over the 1930 census figure.

The leading cities, with their 1940 population figures, are: Seattle (368,302), Spokane (122,001), and Tacoma (109,408). Important cities of less than 100,000 population include: Everett (30,224), Bellingham (29,314), Yakima (27,221), Aberdeen (18,846), Vancouver (18,788), Walla Walla (18,109), and Olympia, the capital (13,254). These figures have been raised substantially in the cases of Seattle, Tacoma, Spokane, Bremerton, and Vancouver, as centers of defense industries and military and naval posts. Seattle increased to an estimated population of more than 500,000 in 1942. Even greater proportionate increases are estimated for Bremerton and Vancouver, shipbuilding centers which have more than doubled in population in the past two years. The more spectacular increase of the two was experienced by Vancouver, which was formerly chiefly a trading center for an agricultural hinterland. The location there of a Kaiser shipyard and an aluminum plant have brought unprecedented demands for over-night expansion of such social services as schools, streets, public housing projects, sanitation facilities, and recreation.

Race problems do not loom large in the state of Washington, where less than 3 per cent of the total population is non-white. This fact facilitated the recent wartime re-location of persons of Japanese descent, with a minimum of social friction. Among the countries ranking highest in the contribution of foreign-born residents to the population of the state are Sweden, Norway, Germany, and England.

Education.

Education is free and compulsory through the elementary school years. Schooling is furnished through 2,095 local public school districts. Of the total, 379 are rural districts maintaining one-room schools. The total enrollment in public day schools for the year ending June 30, 1942, was 388,688.

The state current operating expense for public schools during the year 1941-42 was $32,845,972. The average salary (including superintendents, principals, supervisors, and teachers) was $1,756 ($1,941 for men; $1,672 for women). The average for teachers in one-room schools was $1,248.

One of the most significant educational developments of the past year was the progress made in school district reorganization and consolidation. On Dec. 11, the State Committee reported that a total of 354 former districts had merged into 57 new districts since Jan. 1, thus effecting substantial financial savings.

Another significant development of the year was the distribution of substantial emergency grants of state and Federal aid to hard-pressed defense communities which have experienced abnormal population increases.

Agriculture and Industry.

The financial status of Washington agriculture improved steadily during 1942, largely due to the stimulus of the war effort. In certain areas adjacent to military and naval posts and large defense industry centers, farmers benefited from increases in the price of bottled milk. Prices for other dairy products and for meat likewise netted farmers substantial increases. Many sections of the state experienced acute shortages of agricultural labor during the harvest season, which at times seriously threatened the saving of crops. However, appeals to civic pride and duty brought sufficient after-hour help from the ranks of urban labor to prevent serious crop losses.

All lines of industry experienced greater or lesser labor shortages during the year, due to manpower demands made by the armed forces and to the incentive of high wages in defense industries.

As in the first World War, the present conflict makes heavy demands on the timber resources of the state, which form its basic industry. By the end of the year, it was announced that 2,500,000 tons of critical materials were being released for defense use through substitution of wood products, including enough steel for construction of 100,000 medium tanks. Such substitutions of wood for metal are made in army trucks, aircraft, boats, railroad cars, storage batteries, trailers, and containers. Until September, lumber workers migrated in large numbers to higher paying jobs in shipyards and similar strictly defense industries. At that time, the Government 'froze' workers in the lumber industry.

Legislative Matters.

Since the state Legislature holds its regular sessions in odd-numbered years, legislative developments of 1942 were restricted to items of popular legislation. Initiative 151, providing for liberalized old-age assistance payments, was defeated at the polls. A proposed constitutional amendment which would empower the Legislature to levy a state income tax also failed.

A great deal of interest attached to pre-legislative activity of the State Grange, which obtained signatures to petitions that would ensure legislative consideration for a bill enabling public utility districts to condemn and purchase private power properties on a state-wide or regional basis, instead of being restricted to county-wide limits as in the past.

One of the greatest challenges facing the people of the state is that of forest conservation. Governor Langlie has already made public the text of a bill which he will present to the 1943 legislature on this subject. This measure would establish a new state forest board to control fire protection, reforestation, state timber sales, and all other such matters now under separate agencies. This measure would also provide for state control of logging practices on private lands, and provide for sustained yield methods of timber production and harvesting.

Defense Production.

The greatest expansion in defense production occurred in the Puget Sound area, where estimates of the number of workers added during the year ran as high as 100,000, with promise of continued expansion during 1943. During the year, emphasis shifted from increased hirings at the large Boeing aircraft plant in Seattle to the five largest shipyards in the Seattle-Tacoma-Bremerton area, which added some 23,000 employees in 1941 and approximately 45,000 in 1942. Most of the needs of these firms have been for skilled labor, the most difficult of all to secure. Such difficulties have necessitated resort chiefly to in-service training, and up-grading of present employees. A potential labor supply of the greatest importance consists of women, who invaded shipbuilding and aeronautic crafts in increasing numbers during the year. The chief problems of defense employment are expansion of housing facilities for incoming workers, increase of pre-employment and in-service training programs, and full utilization of woman power. Attendant problems include transportation, recreation, hospitalization, and education.

Finances.

The state budget for the 1941-43 biennium (April 1 to March 31) totals $256,694,351, of which $74,061,877 (including Federal aid) is for social security (exclusive of unemployment compensation and industrial accident compensation).

While gasoline rationing has made a cut in the gas tax revenue used for highway construction and repair, there has also been a decreased need for road construction and repair, caused by decreased usage.

State Officials.

Governor, Arthur B. Langlie; Lieut.-Gov., Victor A. Meyers; Secretary of State, Belle Reeves; State Treasurer, Otto Case; State Auditor, Cliff Yelle; Attorney General, Smith Troy; Supt. of Public Instruction, Pearl A. Wanamaker.

United States Senators:

Homer T. Bone, Monrad C. Wallgren.

1942: Wages, Hours And Working Conditions

During 1942 wages came under regulation as part of a comprehensive Government program for controlling prices and the cost of living. The aims and general character of this program were set forth in a message by the President to Congress on Apr. 27. The program was further elaborated in an Act of Congress, followed by an executive order of the President, in early October. The War Labor Board translated the general features of this program into a specific formula of wage regulation by a decision made on July 16 in the case of the little steel (steel companies other than the United States Steel Corporation) companies. This decision provided that wage increases in 1942, except where wages were unusually low or out of line with comparable wages in other industries, should not exceed 15 per cent, the amount required to keep wages at their purchasing power in January 1941.

Actual weekly earnings, which reflected overtime and increased hours of work as well as advances in wage rates, exceeded, with few exceptions, the increases in living costs. The rise in hourly earnings was more moderate and in many industries, employing considerable numbers, fell short of the increase in the cost of living since January 1941. But in some instances the lag was due to substantial increases in wages won in 1940 and 1941.

The hours question was concerned mainly with the effect of the 40-hour week on war production. Many observers held that adherence to so short a week barred potential expansion in war output and placed an unnecessary strain on the country's manpower, particularly as the size of the armed forces was calculated to exceed 10,000,000. The most direct criticism of this complexion came from the farmers who, in the face of unparalleled demands for farm products, suffered from labor shortages and themselves worked exceedingly long hours. Organized labor held that the 40-hour week was no bar to longer hours and that the demand for a longer week was tantamount to a demand to reduce wages. Many industries did, of course, work more than 40-hours, but the 40-hour week kept hours much below the levels they reached in other warring countries, where average hours worked are reported to exceed 50 per week by substantial amounts.

The most important development in working conditions was the settlement of the closed-shop issue. This was done through a series of decisions of the War Labor Board, directing employers to include in their union contracts a maintenance of membership clause. Maintenance of membership provided that employees who voluntarily indicated their intention to join a union at the time a contract was signed were required to remain members for the duration of the contract. The clause was generally opposed by employers but all but a few accepted it when directed to do so by the board.

1942: Vital Statistics

Birth, Death, and Stillbirth Statistics in 1941.

In 1941, 2,513,427 births and 1,397,642 deaths were reported to the Bureau of the Census for the United States, an increase of 153,028 births and a decrease of 19,627 deaths, as compared with the corresponding figures for the preceding year. The 1941 birth rate of 18.9 per 1,000 population represents an increase of 5.6 per cent over the rate for 1940 and was the highest recorded for the birth registration area since 1931. The birth rate by states ranged from 15.7 per 1,000 population in New York to 27.8 in New Mexico.

The death rate decreased from 10.7 in 1940 to 10.5 per 1,000 population in 1941, and was the lowest ever reported for the death registration state. The infant and maternal mortality rates also reached the lowest level in the history of the registration system. These death rates in 1941 were 45.3 and 3.2 per 1,000 live births, respectively.

As indicated by the crude death rates, there was a general decline in the death rates for the various selected causes. Of particular health significance is the substantial reduction in the death rate for influenza and pneumonia, which dropped from 70.1 per 100,000 population in 1940 to 63.7 in 1941. There has been a rapid decline in the death rate for this cause since 1937, when the influenza and pneumonia rate was 114.9.

Except for the change of motor-vehicle accidents from the eighth to the seventh position, the rank order of the leading causes of death in 1941 did not differ from that of 1940. The increase in the motor-vehicle accident death rate from 26.1 per 100,000 population in 1940 to 30.0 in 1941 displaced diabetes mellitus as the seventh leading cause of death in 1941.

The natality and mortality statistics for 1941 are of particular significance at this time, since they represent experience for the last pre-war year and will be used as a basis of comparison in determining the general effect of the war on the civilian population in 1942. Provisional figures for the first nine months since the entry of the United States into the war indicate that the 1942 birth rate will be significantly higher than that for 1941. Barring the possibility of any epidemics of unusual proportion, mortality conditions in the country promise to be the most favorable in the history of the United States.

Inter-American Unit.

The Bureau of the Census through its Division of Vital Statistics has developed an Inter-American Unit devoted to cooperation in Vital Statistics with the American Republics. The plan involves the employment of three professionally trained traveling consultants who will, upon the request of any American Republic, consult with, advise, and give technical assistance to the officials of that Republic in a cooperative endeavor to improve their vital and medical statistics organizations and data. Insofar as practicable, this work will be integrated with that of existing international organizations concerned with public health and statistics such as the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau and the Inter-American Statistical Institute.

1942: Virginia

Area and Population.

Virginia, the thirty-third state in size, has an area of 40,815 sq. mi. Its population (census of 1940) is 2,677,778, comprising 944,675 urban residents and 1,733,098 rural. Since the census was taken, however, the population of the state has increased by at least 500,000, owing to the war and war industries.

The principal cities are, in order: Richmond, the capital, 193,042; Norfolk, 144,332; Roanoke, 69,287; Portsmouth, 50,734; Lynchburg, 44,541; and Newport News, 37,067. In the year 1942, however, the population of Norfolk was much higher, and that of Newport News rose perhaps to 100,000, owing to shipbuilding and other industries.

Agriculture.

Virginia's leading crops in order of value are as follows: corn, tobacco, hay, apples, wheat, and peanuts.

Industry.

Business in Virginia in 1942 was curiously mixed. Industrial plants worked at full blast due to the war, and retail trade was good. On the other hand, Virginia, which is a great tourist state, was hit hard by gasoline restrictions. Many filling stations and tea rooms closed, and the hotels in some sections of the state suffered.

Education.

The school population in 1941-42 was 709,617. There were 3,784 elementary schools and 618 high schools. The state expenditure for public schools was $29,500,000. The average county teacher's salary was $798; the city's $1,255.

Political and Other Events.

In January 1942, the incoming governor and lieutenant governor, Colgate W. Darden and William M. Tuck (elected in November 1941) were inaugurated in Richmond. The session of the General Assembly that followed, and came to an end on March 15, was one of the most important in years. Governor Darden had drawn up a progressive legislative program which was accepted almost in its entirety by the Assembly.

A minimum salary of $750 for school teachers was adopted, and a sound retirement system. Legislative districts were redistricted so as to give the cities, greatly increased in size in recent years, better representation. Workmen's compensation insurance was extended to new groups of workers. The small-loan rate of interest was greatly reduced. A speed limit of forty-five miles an hour for automobiles (to be reduced to forty at the Governor's option) was established. For the next biennium the budget was balanced without tax increases.

Finance.

The financial condition of Virginia was so improved that Governor Darden ventured to call an extra session of the General Assembly for the purpose of providing for the payment of the state debt. This session lasted from Sept. 29 to Oct. 1. An act was passed appropriating $10,000,000 to the sinking fund to pay off the principal and interest of the state's funded debt. This money was put into United States bonds as an investment, pending the payment of state bonds.

This provision for the payment of Virginia's state debt marks an era in the history of the Commonwealth. Virginia was left in 1865 with a large debt, and with scant means of repayment. From 1870 to 1890 a controversy of the bitterest nature raged over the amount of the debt, which was finally settled by a readjustment on a fair basis. This readjustment, with lowered interest rate, reduced the debt greatly, and soon Virginia will be among the soundest states of the Union financially. This is the result of the excellent state government Virginia has enjoyed since the Constitution of 1902 went into effect.

Defense.

The principal development in Virginia in 1942 was in connection with the war. Camp Pickett was established at Blackstone in southern Virginia, and in northern Virginia about 50,000 acres are being taken over by the Federal government for military purposes. In eastern Virginia there are many camps and air fields; the area is constantly increasing.

State Officers.

Governor, Colgate W. Darden; Lieutenant Governor, William M. Tuck; Secretary of the Commonwealth, Ralph E. Wilkins; Treasurer, William Tayloe Murphy; Attorney General, Abram P. Staples; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dabney S. Lancaster.

United States Senators:

Carter Glass, Harry F. Byrd.

1942: Virgin Islands

Like Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands are suffering from an acute food shortage, owing to the shipping situation. Rum production has also had to be curtailed, since lack of export shipping space has caused a surplus. Rapidly rising prices add to the islands' distress, and relief can no longer, as heretofore, be found through WPA funds.

The twenty-fifth anniversary of the transfer of the Virgin Islands from Denmark to the United States was celebrated on Mar. 31. The Legislative Assembly, on Oct. 6, unanimously approved the selection of former Senator William H. King of Utah as the islands' first resident commissioner. The office of resident commissioner had been requested by the Assembly and when it convened in September Ex-Senator King was its unanimous choice.

In the interest of national safety the power plant, dock and warehouses of the West Indian Company were taken over by the United States Government in March. This company has been one of the economic pillars of the islands, furnishing work to thousands through its operation of a coaling station, harbor works, a power plant and a bauxite transshipment plant. At the same time agents of the FBI struck against enemy aliens on Charlotte Amalie and St. Croix.

1942: Vermont

Area and Population.

Admitted to statehood on March 3, 1791, Vermont is known as the Green Mountain State. It ranks 42nd in size among the states with an area of 9,564 sq. mi. In population it ranks 45th, having 359,231 residents, according to the 1940 United States Census. The largest cities are Burlington. 27,626; Rutland, 17,082; Barre, 10,909: and Montpelier, the capital. 8,006.

Mineral Products.

Production of monumental granite, which constitutes the state's leading mineral, amounted in 1940 to 650,000 cu. ft. valued at $7,300,000. Marble production had a value of $1,500,000; slate, $2,000,000; and tale $230,000,000.

Education.

The number of public elementary schools open in 1942 was 1,102, with 1,931 teachers and 45,000 pupils. Public secondary schools numbered 91, with 699 teachers and 16,201 pupils. The number of persons of school age (5-17) was 74,221.

State expenditures for public schools amounted to $934,471, of which $678,516 was state aid. The average teacher's salary was $1,070. Local school expenditures totaled $5,245,498.

Special matters of interest during the year were the contribution of the schools to the war effort in furnishing extra labor in farm work, especially in making maple sugar, in which 1,400 high-school pupils were employed; all schools shared also in the local defense program in collecting scrap, etc.; and 2,000 pupils were enrolled in out-of-school defense courses.

Finance.

The state bonded debt on June 30, 1942, was $6,650,031, representing a retirement of about $1,000,000 per annum. Receipts during the fiscal year were $20,859,356; disbursements $17,014,898, of which $5,540,959 went for highways, $2,904,560 for charities, hospitals, etc.; $1,168,501 was paid for old-age assistance to about 5,500 persons, making an average grant of $17.72 per month. Payment of unemployment compensation benefits amounted to $316,007 for the year.

Banking.

Assets of state banks for the year totaled $132,447,621, an increase of $5,133,898 over the preceding year. Total deposits were $117,088,405. State bank taxes were $362,973 for the year.

Defense.

During 1942, a State Council of Safety was organized which functions actively in all phases of civilian defense. A State Guard was also organized, and now numbers 113 officers and 1,409 men. An Aeronautics Board was established to develop airports within the state. An Industrial Agent named to promote the state's industrial production, later reported the operation of 18 new industrial plants. A special commission was actively engaged in studying the question of child welfare, and a special committee was appointed to deal with the question of farm labor.

State Officers.

Governor, William H. Wills; Lieutenant Governor, Mortimer Proctor; Secretary of State, Rawson C. Myrick; State Treasurer, Levi Kelly; Auditor of Accounts, David V. Anderson; Attorney General, Alban J. Parker; Commissioner of Education, Ralph E. Noble.

United States Senators:

Geo. D. Aiken, Warren R. Austin.