1940: Naval Science, American

United States Naval Policy.

Upon the outbreak of the European War, all obligations of the London Naval Treaty, 1936, were suspended by all parties of that treaty. As time went on, the development of the international situation resulted in the adoption by the United States of a naval policy different from any previously held, namely, a policy of maintaining a two-ocean navy. A two-ocean navy, experts agreed, is necessary to meet our naval defense requirements simultaneously in both oceans against any possible combination of powers concerting action against us. The only effective naval policy for our time must be one which provides for forces sufficient to afford us complete freedom of action in one ocean while forces adequate to safeguard our defense patrol the other. Anything less than this strength is hazardous to our national security and thus unacceptable, inasmuch as it is within our power to produce and man the forces necessary to meet these requirements.

The trend of events both at home and abroad imposed on the Navy Department a responsibility never before surpassed in its history. New weapons, ever-changing methods of combat, the speed of striking forces and the extension of the theater of operations presented many thorny problems which must be taken into consideration in the modernization of present forces, as well as in the choice and design of the various parts of the tremendous defense expansion program.

Fortunately, the American Navy has been for some time distinctly air-minded. Thus, as a result of the backing and support of the naval service, our present naval air arm is considered by impartial observers the best in the world for its size. This feature alone will prove an appreciable advantage in our future defense development as, contrariwise, lack of such an air arm constituted a regrettable handicap to the British Navy.

As a result of both Asiatic and European wars, our naval air arm has undergone extension of operations and acceleration of development, in both offensive and defensive ways. The methods and results of operations by the combatants have been carefully studied, and the lessons learned relative to construction, armament, protection and tactics are now being applied. That many of the major principles of aircraft operation long ago adopted by the U. S. Navy are correct in theory and practice, results abroad have proved. And yet many new lessons have been demonstrated, necessitating adjustments and readjustments.

The Navy has never believed in the superiority of any one type of weapon at the expense of another. Each category has its special use and purpose, and only by the coordinated effort of the several parts into a perfectly functioning whole can national security be assured.

False conclusions often result from not taking into consideration the scope of the area of operations and the nature of the opposition. For instance, it is manifestly impossible for surface craft to maintain control of limited sea areas dominated by strong, shore-based, enemy air forces. Obviously, command of the sea can be maintained only by the nation having superior surface strength augmented by sufficient air power. Thus, any argument on the relative combatant strength of battleships versus aircraft violates the fundamental principles of naval science. Both have their strength and their limitations. The naval power of possible opponents requires the United States to have a balanced sea force of heavy ships, cruisers, destroyers, submarines, air strength — including carriers and shore-based aircraft — plus the necessary auxiliaries for the service of the Fleet.

Naval Construction Program.

To meet the demands of the threatening international situation the Administration advocated and Congress authorized a $15,000,000,000 defense program, which makes provision for a two-ocean navy by ordering the construction of a great number of warships of all types; speed-up of the shipbuilding and procurement work; increase in the anti-aircraft defense of battleships, cruisers, destroyers, and carriers; and construction, or acquisition and conversion of vessels for naval auxiliaries and small craft. The Act also provides for 10,000 naval airplanes and increased naval aviation facilities as well as the trained personnel for operation and for service.

Training of Personnel.

The battle efficiency of a fleet is dependent upon its personnel and its material readiness. The adequacy and training of the personnel, both officers and men, are of paramount importance. In respect to both expansion and training of its personnel, 1940 was a banner year for the Navy. A ship's complement is the number of officers and trained men required to meet the demands of battle; its allowance is the number of officers and men assigned to it in peacetime. In the latter case, naturally, naval vessels operate with a crew considerably short of a complement; and the price of such shortage is unpreparedness for war. Now, however, a tremendous personnel is in training. The sudden increase has made unparalleled demands on all naval schools from the Naval Academy down to the Training Stations. The organization of the Service Schools is flexible and adaptable for rapid expansion, a very fortunate circumstance indeed. The result is that the Navy will have trained operatives to man new ships and planes as the latter become available.

Lessons of the Present War.

From the very beginning of the European War, many major points in previously accepted fundamental principles have been contested or violated. The very nature of the conflict called for new and unusual methods. The difference in maritime strength of the belligerents, the restricted theater of operations, the proximity of contestants and the geographic disposition of forces all contributed to the formulation of early opinion that it was a 'phoney war.'

As in the World War, Great Britain immediately upon the outbreak of hostilities took command of the sea and drove German commerce to cover, thus applying a rigid economic blockade. Her lack of prewar preparations, however, her antiquated equipment and small air force left vital weaknesses in her defense which an alert and well-prepared Germany was quick to exploit to her advantage.

Some of the innovations and features of the new warfare, many of which have bearing on naval usage, are: (1) The deviation of Germany from the early teachings of the School of Clausewitz to a war of movement as taught by our own Confederate General Stonewall Jackson; (2) intrepid use of submarines against both naval bases and shipping; (3) the general use of magnetic mines that are constructed to arm and detonate with destructive effect when a ship passes in close proximity; (4) use of planes as minelayers; (5) concentrated attack on surface craft by horizontal, dive-bombing and strafing planes; (6) massed bombing attacks; (7) use of small submarines and coastal motor boats; (8) landing of parachute troops behind the lines; (9) Fifth Column activities; (10) scientific propaganda; (11) heavy torpedo and mine charges; (12) night bombing aided by flares; (13) long-range artillery; (14) coordinated effort of submarines and aircraft; (15) repeated wave attack by planes; (16) increased gun-fire from planes; (17) increased protection of planes; (18) general use of incendiary and delayed-action bombs; (19) indiscriminate bombings of civilian areas; (20) neutralization of magnetic mines by counter-currents; (21) air transport of combatant units; (22) daring exploitation by surface raiders; (23) general improvement in plane construction and performance; (24) employment of balloon defenses against aircraft; (25) total blackouts; (26) use of smoke and gases for concealment and camouflage; (27) the use of the term 'total warfare'; (28) new use of neutral and restricted zones; (29) unauthorized treatment of neutrals; (30) vulnerability of surface craft to heavy bombing; (31) lack of adequate anti-aircraft defense on surface craft; (32) mechanized mobile detachments; (33) heavily armed protective tanks; (34) mobility of German arms; (35) difficulties of counter espionage; (36) the appeal to terror; (37) importance of national character.

Acting upon information on the conduct of the war derived from belligerent sources, American naval ingenuity has been mustered to meet the exigencies of total war. Such preparedness entails chiefly designing measures to counter the new weapons and amplifying our own offensive weapons and their uses. In this connection, for instance, great strides have been made in improving the Fleet's anti-aircraft defenses. Axis bombing of combatant ships, it was noted during 1940, was productive of only about ½ of 1 per cent actual hits. Much damage and many personnel casualties resulted, however, from near hits and bomb fragmentations. This hazard has been remedied in our own warships largely by enclosing formerly exposed gun stations. At the same time, experience showed that anti-aircraft fire from surface ships, if existing in sufficient volume, is very effective against air attack. As a consequence the anti-aircraft batteries in the U. S. Fleet have been materially augmented.

Protective steps have been taken against magnetic mines, and new methods of combating submarines have been devised. New technique in the operation of aircraft has been evolved along with the normal progressive development in aircraft design, engines and armament. Similarity in all new construction is maintained, while new features invented to meet the experiences of the present war and improved American ideas are added.

Fleet Organization.

To meet the general situation pursuant to the national policy, United States naval forces are being utilized with the following ends in view: (a) to make effectiveness in war the objective of all development and training; and (b) to organize and maintain the Navy for major operations in both the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean. In order to carry out this policy, the United States has organized three fleets, given here in order of their importance and strength: (1) Pacific Fleet, (2) Atlantic Fleet, and (3) Asiatic Fleet. And the Naval Shore Establishment has been revitalized to meet the requirements of better service to the Fleet.

Marine Corps.

For an effective, ever-ready, streamlined, striking force, the Navy has the U. S. Marine Corps. The greater part of the Marine Corps is organized as the Fleet Marine Force and is a tactical unit of the United States Fleet. This force has its own attached aviation units and it is maintained ready for instant service with the Fleet. Training, equipment, and organization of the Marine Corps are correlated to the support of the Fleet in defensive and offensive action.

New Naval Bases.

An event of vital importance to hemisphere defense, from a strategic standpoint, is the acquisition of new bases in Newfoundland, Bermuda, Jamaica, Trinidad, and St. Lucia, from which United States surface vessels and aircraft may operate.

Research; Developments; Tests.

The objective of our research is to build and maintain a fleet of all classes of fighting ships of the maximum war efficiency and to make superiority in their class the end in view in their design. The trail of such research leads through many fields of science and engineering, ranging through machines and materials from atomic physics on one side to the life cycle of barnacles on the other.

The program can be roughly divided into the three headings of research, developments, and tests. The first heading concerns primarily applied rather than fundamental research, although there is a certain amount of the latter carried on concurrently with other work. Developmental investigations are directed toward the improvement of present methods and materials for the construction of naval vessels or the adaptation of available commercial products to these purposes. Tests are generally of a routine nature to determine whether material under purchase or machinery or structures in the course of construction conform to existing specifications and standards. While this type of work is predominant in bulk and indispensable, it does not, however, constitute the most important portion of the Bureau's experimental program.

In the conduct of this research the various naval agencies are employed, primarily the different laboratories under the cognizance of the Bureau of Ships and the Naval Research Laboratory; often, however, the demands of investigation are such as to be beyond the scope of laboratory facilities and to require preparatory and test work by one of the Navy yards. In addition, over 25 of the outstanding technical and scientific agencies of the country, as well as several other Government agencies, are employed under personal service or developmental contracts. Cooperation with many technical societies, moreover, furthers the research work sponsored by these societies. The value of the continuance of an active research program has been clearly demonstrated by the gains made during the past year. Only outstanding progress in various important investigations may be noted here.

A study of various types of possible prime movers to be used for propulsion has been made and it is believed that the result of this study will result in great improvement in ship design generally.

Great advances have been made by industry in improving the reliability and reducing the weight of Diesel engines and Diesel electric installations. Intensive study combined with development contracts has been made with a view to taking full advantage of all such improvements in Diesel machinery for naval purposes.

The extensive studies made in the past of the structures of naval vessels, with a view to increasing the efficacy of their design, were continued during 1940. These studies include model and full-scale tests of a wide variety of structures subjected to different types of loading, including ballistic, repetitive, and static. More important work was performed in the study of the best methods of protecting ships from all varieties of hostile attack.

Hand in hand with structural investigation, research on welding progressed. Only through the extensive use of this method of joining structural members have many of the improvements now accepted as commonplace been made possible. Important investigations into the strengths of both fillet and butt welds were concluded during the year. Much work also was done in developing welding procedures and in cooperating with industry in developing new electrodes to fulfill specific needs. The weldability of the various steels and nonferrous alloys used in the naval service has also been studied, and considerable improvements in welding technique have resulted.

A ventilation research program designed to improve and simplify the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning of naval vessels has been undertaken. This program has two objectives: (a) to determine accurately the amount of ventilation which will contribute directly to fighting power by keeping the men mentally keen and physically fit to fight under the severest conditions, and (b) to provide this amount of ventilation in such a way as to use minimum weight, space, connected power load, and cost.

Related problems under radio and sound have been continually under study with the intention of improving the design, performance, and reliability of apparatus and of adopting new developments in these fields to naval uses.

Experimental work to improve diving gear and methods of diving continued throughout the year, with particular reference to the special gear required for use of oxygen-helium mixtures as divers' air supply in deep-sea diving.

The field of dehumidification as applied to both commissioned and decommissioned naval vessels has greatly expanded.

The properties of various steels have been extensively studied with a view to determining the possibilities of their application to such severe services as in high-pressure, high-temperature steam plants or as parts of armored structures. Research has been continued into the fundamentals of steel castings and has been directed towards the problem of improving the quality of these castings. Various aspects of this problem have been investigated, including the use of synthetic molding sands, the fluidity of steels, the type of molds, temperature control, and foundry practice. The results of this work have been of considerable benefit to naval and commercial foundries.

Nonferrous metals entering into condensers and saltwater piping systems are subjected to two of the severest corrosive conditions existing on naval vessels. The choice of suitable metals for these services has been under study for a number of years and is closely allied, especially in the case of condensers, with many engineering and design considerations. Progress has been made during the past year, and, as a result of this and previous studies, the use of a copper-nickel alloy containing 70 per cent copper and 30 per cent nickel has been extended considerably for all saltwater piping systems. Extensive service tests of other materials have also been continued. Nonferrous casting research along lines similar to ferrous research has also been continued. The investigation of various metals for use in propellers has been continued in an effort to improve the corrosion and erosion resistance of these vital parts. Tests have also been initiated to establish the usefulness of lead base babbitt metals, in place of the tin base ones, for the purpose of reducing the consumption of the strategic metal, tin.

The development of methods, instruments, and appliances for the inspection of castings, piping, and weldments has continued. The use of radiography, either by X-rays or gamma-rays, has developed to such an extent that this type of inspection is required on many of the large steel castings and weldments currently being purchased for new construction. The results of these inspections have been highly satisfactory. Magnetic methods of inspection were also improved considerably. An additional inspection laboratory was equipped with a spectrograph during the year, in view of the success that the first laboratory so equipped has had in making routine chemical analyses.

Investigations during the year have resulted in the development of three promising grades of thin-film rust-prevention compounds designed for the preservation of metallic surfaces under varying conditions found in naval service.

Efforts have been continued to improve the durability and other essential properties of the paints applied above the water line to the exterior and interior surfaces of naval vessels.

Investigations are being made of domestic materials which may possibly be more satisfactory than strategic materials such as: kapok for life jackets, balsa wood for life floats, pyrethrum concentrate for insecticides, and teak for wood decking. (See also CHEMISTRY.)

Conclusions.

When one considers the many differences between the type of conflict waged in Europe today as compared with that of twenty-three years ago it is not difficult to visualize the task that confronts America in the present feverish armament campaign. Nor is the fact to be overlooked that a vast amount of manufactured military and naval essentials is to be supplied Great Britain and her allies.

One important advantage derives from the aid given England. Experience will evolve better planes and equipment. Our designers will have the benefit of front-line information, and in the end the final product for American forces should be the finest in the world.

The tempo of production will not exceed the speed of training personnel so that, unless an invasion of this hemisphere is planned before the end of 1941, it is reasonable to assume that the national defenses will be in order by that time.

The best example of total unpreparedness was the inept resistance offered by England to the invasion of the Scandinavian countries. The catastrophe will certainly show the way to the necessity for a properly organized and equipped expeditionary force. In the Norway campaign lack of proper preparation and equipment spelled disaster to the British in the face of German thoroughness.

During the year the United States turned over to Great Britain fifty overage World War destroyers, still good for service. This loss to our Navy may not be detrimental provided that we are not drawn into the war at an early date and that new construction is ready in time.

Since the collapse of France the war around the British Isles and in the Mediterranean has developed largely into an aggressive air and undersea campaign by Germany against a country inferior in aircraft and aircraft defenses and with her sea power so scattered over the face of the globe that adequate convoy cannot be given to the life lines to the homeland. This situation, however, as Britain settles down and Germany scatters herself, is steadily improving.

Reliable sources point to the following circumstances that must have a direct bearing on the war and its continuation: (a) The losses in surface craft by England, France, Germany and Italy have been very heavy. (b) German submarine losses have been heavy. Training of submarine crews must be difficult. (c) German air supremacy is gradually being whittled down. (d) There is a fair chance, with American aid, that the R.A.F. will take the air ascendancy in 1941. (e) The prospect of Germany's manning either French or British men of war is remote. (f) England must give better protection to her shipping. A decision in the Mediterranean would insure this possibility. (g) The continued pounding of England by bombers has a more serious effect on the civilian population than on military or military objectives. (h) German air strength had been overrated and overestimated.

After all, it is the character of the people that wins long-drawn-out wars. A united nation with a national character that wills not to be defeated is an all but unconquerable problem for any aggressor.

See also EUROPEAN WAR; GREAT BRITAIN, and MILITARY SCIENCE.